SLOVENIA : CHAMPION OF LIBERAL ECONOMY

Slovenia ( Capital : Ljubljana ) is 20,273 sq km in area with just 46.6 km coastline.It’s ethnic groups are Slovene 83.1%, Serb 2%, Croat 1.8%, Bosniak 1.1%, other or unspecified 12% (2002 census) and religions constituting Catholic 57.8%, Muslim 2.4%, Orthodox 2.3%, other Christian 0.9%, unaffiliated 3.5%, other or unspecified 23%, none 10.1% (2002 census).The Slovene lands were part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire until the latter’s dissolution at the end of World War I. In 1918, the Slovenes joined the Serbs and Croats in forming a new multinational state, which was named Yugoslavia in 1929. After World War II, Slovenia became a republic of the renewed Yugoslavia, which though Communist, distanced itself from Moscow’s rule. Dissatisfied with the exercise of power by the majority Serbs, the Slovenes succeeded in establishing their independence in 1991 after a short 10-day war. Historical ties to Western Europe, a strong economy, and a stable democracy have assisted in Slovenia’s transformation to a modern state. Slovenia acceded to both NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.

HISTORY

Slovenia is the only country once to have formed a part of a socialist state to be at the same time a member of the European Union, the Eurozone, the Schengen area, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the Council of Europe and NATO.

In April 1941, Yugoslavia was invaded by the Axis Powers. Slovenia was divided between Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany and Horthy’s Hungary and several villages given to the Independent State of Croatia. Soon, a liberation movement under the Communist leadership emerged. Due to political assassinations carried out by the Communist guerrillas as well as the pre-existing radical anti-Communism of the conservative circles of the Slovenian society, a civil war between Slovenes broke out[when?] in the Italian-occupied south-eastern Slovenia (known as Province of Ljubljana) between the Liberation Front of the Slovenian People and the Axis-sponsored anti-communist militia, the Slovene Home Guard, formed to protect villages from attacks by partisans. The Slovene partisan guerrilla managed to liberate large portions of the Slovene Lands, making a contribution to the defeat of Nazism.

The Ten-Day War (Slovene: Desetdnevna vojna), sometimes called the Slovenian Independence War (Slovene: Slovenska osamosvojitvena vojna), was a brief military conflict between Slovenia and Yugoslavia in 1991 following Slovenia’s declaration of independence.

FLAG DESCRIPTION

Three equal horizontal bands of white (top), blue, and red, with the Slovenian seal (a shield with the image of Triglav, Slovenia’s highest peak, in white against a blue background at the center; beneath it are two wavy blue lines depicting seas and rivers, and above it are three six-pointed stars arranged in an inverted triangle, which are taken from the coat of arms of the Counts of Celje, the great Slovene dynastic house of the late 14th and early 15th centuries); the seal is in the upper hoist side of the flag centered on the white and blue bands

ECONOMY

Today Slovenia is a stable democracy that is increasing its international engagement. Slovenia is one of the top foreign investors in the former Yugoslavia, and a charter World Trade Organization (WTO) member. Members of the Slovenian Armed Forces are participating in NATO, EU, and UN operations in Iraq, Afghanistan, Bosnia, Kosovo, and elsewhere. Slovenia served as the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) Chairman-in-Office in 2005, was the Chairman of the International Atomic Energy Agency Board of Governors in 2006-2007, and was the first of the ten 2004 EU newcomers to hold the EU’s rotating presidency in the first half of 2008. Though small in size, Slovenia enjoys a growing regional profile and plays a role on the world stage that is out of proportion to its size.

Slovenia’s economic success clearly illustrates the benefits of embracing liberal trade, following the rule of law, and rewarding enterprise. This success, however, is not unprecedented for Slovenia. Although it comprised only about one-thirteenth of Yugoslavia’s total population, it was the most productive of the Yugoslav republics, accounting for one-fifth of its GDP and one-third of its exports. The country already enjoyed a relatively prosperous economy and strong market ties to the West when it gained independence in 1991. Since independence, Slovenia has pursued diversification of its trade toward the West and integration into Western and transatlantic institutions vigorously. In so doing, it has made substantial progress in its transition to a market economy, particularly becoming party to a number of bilateral and regional free trade agreements. Slovenia is a founding member of the WTO and joined the Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) in 1996. Slovenia also participates in SECI, as well as in the Central European Initiative, the Royaumont Process, and the Black Sea Economic Council. Slovenia became a new EU member state on May 1, 2004.

Today, Slovenia is one the best economic performers in central and eastern Europe, with a GDP per capita in PPP in 2007 at $25,755.Slovenia is a model of economic success and stability for the region.It benefits from a well-educated and productive work force as well as dynamic and effective political and economic institutions. Although Slovenia has taken a cautious, deliberate approach to economic management and reform, with heavy emphasis on achieving consensus before proceeding, its overall record is one of relative success.

MACEDONIA : THE POOR MAN IN THE FEDERATION

Macedonia ( Capital : Skopje ) is a landlocked country with an area of 25,333 sq km.It’s Ethnic groups are Macedonian 64.2%, Albanian 25.2%, Turkish 3.9%, Roma (Gypsy) 2.7%, Serb 1.8%, other 2.2% (2002 census)
and
Religions : Macedonian Orthodox 64.7%, Muslim 33.3%, other Christian 0.37%, other and unspecified 1.63% (2002 census)

Although Macedonia ( also referred to as Makedonija ) became independent from Yugoslavia in 1991, but Greece’s objected to the new state’s usage of name what it considered a Hellenic name.It was because Greece has a province called Macedonia ( where Emperor Alexander the Great was born ) and was afraid of territorial claims in the future and this delayed international recognition.In a letter to UN Secretary General dated 25 January 1993,Greek Foreign Minister, Michael Papacostaninou argued that admitting the republic “prior to meeting the necessary prerequisites, and in particular abandoning the use of the denomination ‘Republic of Macedonia’, would perpetuate and increase friction and tension and would not be conducive to peace and stability in an already troubled region.”

FLAG DESCRIPTION

A yellow sun with eight broadening rays extending to the edges of the red field

HISTORY

Throughout its history, the present-day territory of Macedonia has been a crossroads for both traders and conquerors moving between the European continent and Asia Minor. Each of these transiting powers left its mark upon the region, giving rise to a rich and varied cultural and historical tradition.

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the territory of Macedonia fell under the control of the Byzantine Empire in the 6th and 7th centuries. It was during this period that large groups of Slavic people migrated to the Balkan region. The Ottoman Turks conquered the territory in the 15th century; it remained under Ottoman Turkish rule until 1912.

After more than four centuries of rule, Ottoman power in the region began to wane, and by the middle of the 19th century, Greece, Bulgaria, and Serbia were competing for influence in the territory. During this time, a nationalist movement emerged and grew in Macedonia. The latter half of the 19th century, and continuing into the early part of the 20th century, was marked by sporadic nationalist uprisings, culminating in the Ilinden Uprising of August 2, 1903. Macedonian revolutionaries liberated the town of Krushevo and established the short-lived Republic of Krushevo, which was put down by Ottoman forces after 10 days. Following Ottoman Turkey’s defeat by the allied Balkan countries–Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece–during the First Balkan War in autumn 1912, the same allies fought the Second Balkan War over the division of Macedonia. The August 1913 Treaty of Bucharest ended this conflict by dividing the territory between Bulgaria, Greece, and Serbia. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles sanctioned partitioning Macedonia between The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, Bulgaria, and Greece. In the wake of the First World War, Vardar Macedonia (the present day area of the Republic of Macedonia) was incorporated into the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.

Throughout much of the Second World War, Bulgaria and Italy occupied Macedonia. Many citizens joined partisan movements during this time and succeeded in liberating the region in late 1944. Following the war, Macedonia became one of the constituent republics of the new Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia under Marshall Tito. During this period, Macedonian culture and language flourished.

As communism fell throughout Eastern Europe in the late 20th century, Macedonia followed its other federation partners and declared its independence from Yugoslavia in late 1991. Macedonia was the only republic of the former Yugoslavia whose secession in 1991 was not clouded by ethnic or other armed conflict, although the ethnic Albanian population declined to participate in the referendum on independence. The new Macedonian constitution took effect November 20, 1991 and called for a system of government based on a parliamentary democracy. The first democratically elected coalition government was led by Prime Minister Branko Crvenkovski of the Social Democratic Union of Macedonia (SDSM) and included the ethnic Albanian Party for Democratic Prosperity (PDP). Kiro Gligorov became the first President of an independent Macedonia.

President Gligorov was the first president of a former Yugoslav republic to relinquish office. In accordance with the terms of the Macedonian constitution, his presidency ended in November 1999 after 8 years in office, which included surviving a car bombing assassination attempt in 1995. He was succeeded by former Deputy Foreign Minister Boris Trajkovski (VMRO-DPMNE), who defeated Tito Petkovski (SDSM) in a second-round run-off election for the presidency on November 14, 1999. Trajkovski’s election was confirmed by a December 5, 1999 partial re-vote in 230 polling stations, which the Macedonian Supreme Court mandated due to election irregularities.

In November 1998 parliamentary elections, the SDSM lost its majority. A new coalition government emerged under the leadership of Prime Minister Ljubco Georgievski of the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization-Democratic Party for Macedonian National Unity (VMRO-DPMNE). The initial coalition included the ethnic Albanian Democratic Party of Albanians (DPA).

During the Yugoslav period, most of Macedonia’s Slavic population identified themselves as Macedonians, while several minority groups, in particular ethnic Albanians, retained their own distinct political culture and language. Although interethnic tensions simmered under Yugoslav authority and during the first decade of its independence, the country avoided ethnically motivated conflict until several years after independence. Ethnic minority grievances, which had erupted on occasion (1995 and 1997), rapidly began to gain political currency in late 2000, leading many in the ethnic Albanian community in Macedonia to question their minority protection under, and participation in, the government. Tensions erupted into open hostilities in Macedonia in February 2001, when a group of ethnic Albanians near the Kosovo border carried out armed provocations that soon escalated into an insurgency. Purporting to fight for greater civil rights for ethnic Albanians in Macedonia, the group seized territory and launched attacks against government forces. Many observers ascribed other motives to the so-called National Liberation Army (NLA), including support for criminality and the assertion of political control over affected areas. The insurgency spread through northern and western Macedonia during the first half of 2001. Under international mediation, a cease-fire was brokered in July 2001, and the government coalition was expanded in July 2001 to form a grand coalition which included the major opposition parties.

The expanded coalition of ruling ethnic Macedonian and ethnic Albanian political leaders, with facilitation by U.S. and European Union (EU) diplomats, negotiated and then signed the Ohrid Framework Agreement in August 2001, which brought an end to the fighting. The agreement called for implementation of constitutional and legislative changes, which laid the foundation for improved civil rights for minority groups. The Macedonian parliament adopted the constitutional changes outlined in the accord in November 2001. The grand coalition disbanded following the signing of the Ohrid Framework Agreement and the passage of new constitutional amendments. A coalition led by Prime Minister Georgievski, including DPA and several smaller parties, completed its parliamentary term.

In September 2002 elections, an SDSM-led pre-election coalition won half of the 120 seats in parliament. Branko Crvenkovski was elected Prime Minister in coalition with the ethnic Albanian Democratic Union for Integration (DUI) party and the Liberal-Democratic Party (LDP).

On February 26, 2004 President Trajkovski died in a plane crash in Bosnia. Presidential elections were held April 14 and 28, 2004. Then-Prime Minister Branko Crvenkovski won the second round and was inaugurated President on May 12, 2004. The parliament confirmed Hari Kostov, former Interior Minister, as Prime Minister June 2, 2004, but Kostov resigned on November 15 of the same year. On December 17, 2004, former Defense Minister Vlado Buckovski was confirmed by parliament as Prime Minister, maintaining the coalition with the ethnic Albanian Democratic Union for Integration (DUI) and the Liberal-Democratic (LDP) parties.

With international assistance, the SDSM-DUI-LDP governing coalition completed the legislative implementation of the Ohrid Framework Agreement, which is a precondition for Macedonia’s integration into Euro-Atlantic institutions. A November 7, 2004 referendum opposing completion of this process failed, freeing the way for the government to complete Framework Agreement implementation.

Local elections were held in March-April 2005 under a new territorial reorganization plan that consolidated the overall number of Macedonia’s municipalities and created a number of ethnically-mixed municipalities in which ethnic Albanian populations were dominant. The process of decentralization began in the new municipalities in July 2005 and is continuing.

The July 2006 parliamentary elections resulted in a VMRO-DPMNE-led government under Prime Minister Nikola Gruevski assuming power, in coalition with DPA, NSDP, and several smaller parties. The new government, which was confirmed in office by a parliamentary vote on August 26, 2006, stated its commitment to completing Framework Agreement implementation and reaffirmed its commitment to pursuing NATO and EU membership.

At NATO’s Bucharest Summit in April 2008, all 26 NATO Allies agreed Macedonia had met the criteria for membership. Consensus on extending a NATO membership invitation could not be reached, due to the unresolved dispute with Greece over Macedonia’s name.

Following the Bucharest Summit, the opposition DUI party, in collaboration with the governing VMRO-DPMNE and DPA parties, called for the dissolution of parliament and for early parliamentary elections, which were held in June 2008. On July 26, Prime Minister Gruevski was reconfirmed in office with a new coalition along with the DUI party and one smaller party. Next regular parliamentary elections should be in 2012.

ECONOMY

At independence in September 1991, Macedonia was the least developed of the Yugoslav republics, producing a mere 5% of the total federal output of goods and services. The collapse of Yugoslavia ended transfer payments from the central government and eliminated advantages from inclusion in a de facto free trade area. An absence of infrastructure, UN sanctions on the downsized Yugoslavia, and a Greek economic embargo over a dispute about the country’s constitutional name and flag hindered economic growth until 1996. GDP subsequently rose each year through 2000. However, the leadership’s commitment to economic reform, free trade, and regional integration was undermined by the ethnic Albanian insurgency of 2001. The economy shrank 4.5% because of decreased trade, intermittent border closures, increased deficit spending on security needs, and investor uncertainty. Growth barely recovered in 2002 to 0.9%, then averaged 4% per year during 2003-07. Macedonia has maintained macroeconomic stability with low inflation, but it has so far lagged the region in attracting foreign investment and job creation despite making extensive fiscal and business sector reforms. Official unemployment remains the highest in Europe at 35%, but may be somewhat overstated based on the existence of an extensive gray market, estimated to be more than 20 percent of GDP, that falls outside official statistics.It’s GDP – per capita (PPP) : $8,400 (2007 est.) & it’s Currency (code) : Macedonian denar (MKD).

CROATIA : CROSSROADS OF CONFLICT

CROATIA

The Republic of Croatia is a southern Central European country at the crossroads between the Pannonian Plain and the Mediterranean Sea. Its capital and largest city is Zagreb.Croatia is a member of the United
Nations, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and the Council of Europe. The country is also a candidate for membership of the European Union and received a NATO membership invitation on April 3, 2008. NATO member nations signed accession protocols for Croatia on July 9, 2008, bringing it into the final stretch of its quest for membership. Croatia is expected to formally join the 26-nation pact in April 2009 on NATO’s 60th birthday,[3] making it the second former Yugoslav nation to join NATO following Slovenia which entered in 2004. On October 17, 2007 Croatia became a non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council for the 2008-2009 term. Additionally, Croatia is also a founding member of the Mediterranean Union upon its establishment on July 13, 2008.

FLAG DESCRIPTION

Three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and blue superimposed by the Croatian coat of arms (red and white checkered)

PEOPLE AND HISTORY

The Croats are believed to be a purely Slavic people who migrated from Ukraine and settled in present-day Croatia during the 6th century. After a period of self-rule, Croatians agreed to the Pacta Conventa in 1091, submitting themselves to Hungarian authority. By the mid-1400s, concerns over Ottoman expansion led the Croatian Assembly to invite the Habsburgs, under Archduke Ferdinand, to assume control over Croatia. Habsburg rule proved successful in thwarting the Ottomans, and by the 18th century, much of Croatia was free of Turkish control.

In 1868, Croatia gained domestic autonomy while remaining under Hungarian authority. Following World War I and the demise of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Croatia joined the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and
Slovenes (the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes became Yugoslavia in 1929). Yugoslavia changed its name once again after World War II. The new state became the Federal Socialist Republic of Yugoslavia and united Croatia and several other states together under the communistic leadership of
Marshall Tito (born Josip Broz).

After the death of Tito and with the fall of communism throughout eastern Europe, the Yugoslav federation began to unravel. Croatia held its first multi-party elections since World War II in 1990. Long-time Croatian
nationalist Franjo Tudjman was elected President, and one year later, Croatians declared independence from Yugoslavia. Conflict between Serbs and Croats in Croatia escalated, and one month after Croatia declared independence, civil war erupted.

The United Nations mediated a cease-fire in January 1992, but hostilities resumed the next year when Croatia fought to regain one-third of the territory lost the previous year. A second cease-fire was enacted in May 1993, followed by a joint declaration the next January between Croatia and Yugoslavia. However, in September 1993, the Croatian Army led an offensive against the Serb-held Republic of Krajina. A third cease-fire was called in March 1994, but it, too, was broken in May and August 1995, after which Croatian forces regained large portions of Krajina, prompting an exodus of Serbs from this area. In November 1995, Croatia agreed to peacefully reintegrate Eastern Slavonia, Baranja, and Western Sirmium under terms of the Erdut Agreement, and the Croatian government re-established political and legal authority over those territories in January 1998. In December 1995, Croatia signed the Dayton peace agreement,
committing itself to a permanent cease-fire and the return of all refugees.

The death of President Tudjman in December 1999, followed by the election of a coalition government and President in early 2000, brought significant changes to Croatia. The government, under the leadership of then-Prime Minister Racan, progressed in implementation of the Dayton Peace Accords, regional cooperation, refugee returns, national reconciliation, and democratization.

On November 23, 2003, national elections were held for Parliament, and the HDZ, which had governed Croatia from independence until 2000, came back into power. The HDZ government, headed by Prime Minister Ivo Sanader, was narrowly re-elected in a November 2007 ballot, and the new government assumed office on January 12, 2008. The Sanader government’s priorities remain membership for Croatia in the European Union and in NATO Presidential elections were held in January 2005. President

Mesic, having defeated the HDZ candidate in that election, was inaugurated for a second term on February 18, 2005. Presidential elections will next be held in January 2010.

ECONOMY

Once the wealthiest Yugoslav republic, Croatia’s economy suffered badly during the 1991-95 war as output collapsed and the country missed the early waves of investment in Central and Eastern Europe that followed the fall of the Berlin Wall. Since 2000, however, Croatia’s economic fortunes have begun to improve slowly, with moderate but steady GDP growth between 4% and 5% led by a rebound in tourism and credit-driven consumer spending. Inflation over the same period has been controlled and the currency, the Kuna is stable. Nevertheless, difficult problems still remain, including a stubbornly high unemployment rate, a growing trade deficit and uneven regional development. The state retains a large role in the
economy, as privatization efforts often meet stiff public and political resistance. While macroeconomic stabilization has largely been achieved, structural reforms lag because of deep resistance on the part of the public and lack of strong support from politicians. The EU accession process should accelerate fiscal and structural reform.Basic features of Croatia’s economy are industry, agriculture, forestry,fishing industry and food, drink, and tobacco production, construction,transport and communication, and trade.

Croatia is included in the group of countries with small and open economies, which are largely connected to other foreign markets. The priority of Croatia’s economic policy is the continuation of making a stabile and strong market-oriented economy which is competitive in the global market, constant reinforcement of macroeconomic stability and the continuation of structural reforms for the purpose of securing stabile and sustainable economic growth, increase in production, especially import and increase in employment. The particular emphasis is on creating a favourable business environment harmonized with the business environment prevalent in the European Union, further development of market economy, stimulation of
private investments, promotion of international competitiveness, and entrepreneurial and market freedom.

HITRO.HR service was introduced in 2005 as a means of strengthening entrepreneurship with the specific goal of simplifying administrative procedures, and in January 2006 Croatia’s Tax Administration activated
e-PDV, a service which allows all the users who are in the VAT system to file their VAT tax return in electronic format. Also, the Government started the e-Hrvatska programme, using which they plan to introduce information systems into the entire education system and also one of the plans is to introduce on-line access to health service, which would enable better medical service. Future plans include designing and setting up networks, which would enable on-line access to civil service, health service,
education service, and justice before 2007. During 2006 an initiative was started together with the science community in Croatia in order to advance the cooperation between Croatia’s economy and science.

Creating conditions for sustaining high economic growth rates was also initiated, especially through enhancing competitiveness and flexibility of the market, which will help in tacking the problem of unemployment. Through the growth in production and export and through stimulating export activities, restructuring large Croatian companies owned by the state and increase of competitiveness of Croatian products on the global market will have a positive effect on Croatia’s foreign debt and balance of payments deficit.

Basic economic goals include export growth, quality standards introduction, meeting ecology requirements and achieving expenditure efficiency. Climate, relief, and soil diversity enables a wide agricultural range of products, while low level of pollution is good for the development of ecological production. Croatia, as one of the significant tourist destinations in the Mediterranean, has a long tourist tradition and big development prospects. During the past couple of years Croatia is classified as one of the European destinations with the highest growth rate. Construction restructuring trend in Croatia, relevant during recent years, is in accordance with modern European trends, where it is easier for small
and medium companies to adapt to modern market requirements. An advantageous geographical position provides opportunities for the development of transport infrastructure and activities as one of the
important factors of the entire economic and social development of thecountry.

One of the primary goals of the economic policy of Croatia’s government is to create a stimulating business environment, harmonized with the standards used in the EU and countries with developed market economies. The Government plans to achieve its dedication to reforming national economy, with the goal of attracting foreign investors to Croatia, on domestic, as well as on international level.

Since 2002 Trade and Investment Promotion Agency has been active and its basic activities are directed towards proactive searching, informing, attracting and realization of qualified investment projects which include production of goods and services with high added value intended for export, as well as projects which will generate new jobs. Export orientation is necessary for presented the “Croatian Export Offensive” (Hrvatska izvozna ofenziva – HIO). The main objectives of the strategy are directed towards
solving crucial issues for export growth, such as small capacities, production fragmentation, and insufficient competitiveness. The strategy gets a special meaning from the founding of six export clusters,namely: water, small shipbuilding, textile and clothing, ICT solutions, wood and furniture, and mariculture and Croatian fish.

It can be expected that the EU accession negotiations will have a positiveeffect on a larger inflow of foreign capital, especially into greenfield investment projects, which should eventually increase the economic growth and global competitiveness of the Croatian economy.

Croatia achieved its greatest accomplishment on the international level on October 4, 2005 by starting the EU accession negotiations, after a positive avis from the Council of the European Union. The screening process is currently in progress. Croatia is also, as a member of the WTO, in the process of active harmonization of its legislation in accordance with the standards of the WTO. Croatia has signed the Stabilization and Association Agreement with the EU, and this agreement came into force in 2005.

MONTENEGRO : IN ALLIANCE WITH SERBIA

MONTENEGRO                                                                                                       IN ALLIANCE WITH SERBIA

Montenegro ( also called as Montenegrin ) totals 4,026 sq km in area.Montenegro has changed its name many times, from the Latin era under the mane of Prevalis, to the medieval state Zeta, and then to the modern name Crna Gora (MONTENEGRO).A sovereign principality since the Late Middle Ages,Montenegro saw its independence from the Ottoman Empire formally recognized in 1878. From 1918, it was a part of various incarnations of Yugoslavia. On the basis of a referendum held on 21 May 2006, Montenegro declared independence on 3 June. On 28 June 2006, it became the 192nd member state of the United Nations,and on 11 May 2007 the 47th member state of the Council of Europe.

DEMOGRAPHICS

Amongst the population the                                                                                Montenegrins comprise 43.16% ; Serbs 31.99% ; Bosniaks 7.77% ; Albanians 5.03% ; Ethnic Muslims 3.97% ; Croats 1.1% ; Roma 0.42% ; Yugoslavs 0.3% and Others 6.26%
and
Languages spoken are Serbian 63.49% ; Montenegrin 21.96% ; Bosnian 5.49% ; Albanian 5.26% ; Croatian 0.45% and Others 3.34%
and
Religions observed are Orthodox 74.24% ; Muslim 17.74% ; Roman Catholic 3.54% ;

FLAG DESCRIPTION

A red field bordered by a narrow golden-yellow stripe with the Montenegrin coat of arms centered

TOPOGRAPHY

Montenegro is generally Orthodox, and shares a strong cultural affinity with Serbia. But while landlocked Serbia can feel businesslike, Montenegro boasts an easygoing seaside spice. With its laid-back Mediterranean orientation, sparkling coastline, and more than its share of Catholic churches (left behind by past Venetian and Austrian rulers), Montenegro also has a lot in common with Croatia.

And yet, crossing the border, you know you’ve left the sleek, prettified-for-tourists spit-and-polish of Croatia for a place that’s grittier, raw, and a bit exotic. While Dubrovnik and the showpiece Dalmatian Coast avoided the drab, boxy dullness of the Yugoslav era, less affluent Montenegro wasn’t so lucky. Between the dramatic cliffs and historic villages, you’ll drive past grimy, broken-down apartment blocks and some truly unfortunate resort-hotel architecture.

Just beyond Perast is the town of Kotor. Butted up against a steep cliff, cradled by a calm sea, naturally sheltered by its deep-in-the-fjord position, and watched over by an imposing network of fortifications, Kotor has survived centuries of would-be invaders by its imposing town wall, which scrambles in a zigzag line up the mountain behind it. Though it’s enjoyed a long and illustrious history, today’s Kotor is a time-capsule retreat for travelers seeking a truly unspoiled Adriatic town. The town, with 3,000 living inside the old town walls, has just enough commerce to keep a couple of restaurants and hotels in business.

With an inviting Old Town, it seems custom-built for aimless strolling. Though it’s sometimes called a “little Dubrovnik,” that’s a stretch. Kotor is low-key, less ambitious, and much smaller than its more famous neighbor. Yet visitors find that Kotor — with its own special spice that’s exciting to sample — is a hard place to tear yourself away from.

Wander the enjoyably seedy streets of Kotor, drop into some Orthodox churches, and sip a coffee at an al fresco cafe. Enjoying my bijela kava (“white coffee,” as a latte is called here), I watched kids coming home from school. Two girls walked by happily spinning the same kind of batons my sisters spun when I was a tyke. And then a sweet girl walked by all alone — lost in thought, carrying a tattered violin case.

Even in a land where humble is everything’s middle name, parents can find an old violin and manage to give their little girls grace and culture. Letting that impression breathe, it made me happier than I imagined it would.

TOURISM

Montenegro is well suited for development of all kinds of tourism,as it both has picturesque coast and mountainous northern region.The country was a well-known tourist spot in the 1980s, yet, the Yugoslav wars that were fought in neighboring countries during the 1990s crippled the tourist industry, and destroyed the image of Montenegro as a tourist destination.

It was not until 2000s that the tourism industry began to recover, and the country has since experienced high growth of number of tourist visits and overnight stays.Government of Montenegro has set the development of Montenegro as an elite tourist destination a top priority. It is a national strategy to make the tourism a major, if not single largest, contributor to Montenegrin economy. A number of steps were taken to attract foreign investors to Montenegrin tourism industry.

Some large projects are already under way, like Porto Montenegro, while locations such as Jaz Beach, Buljarica, Velika Plaža and Ada Bojana have perhaps the greatest potential to attract future investments and become premium tourist spots on Adriatic.Some of the problems that currently hamper the development of Montenegrin tourism are inadequate infrastructure, notably the road infrastructure in the north, and electricity and water supply in the south of the country.

ECONOMY

Until several years ago, Montenegro was the country whose economy was based on the public (socially-owned) property. Since such a concept of ownership has proved to be inefficient, the process of privatization of economy was initiated. Despite the very difficult and in many instances specific conditions in which the process was taking place, the results gained fully justify the efforts. The necessary legislation was adopted and The Privatization Council founded as the Government’s body responsible for managing the process of privatization. The intention is to carry out the process in two ways:
1. The sale of shares to strategic investors- Selling shares by means of international tenders is one of the strategic moves to accelerate the entire process of privatization. It is planned to offer the shares of some thirty Montenegrin companies for sale through the international tendering procedure.

2. Mass voucherisation (MVP) as a privatization model, which, besides accelerating the process of privatizing economy, stimulates the development of the capital market and financial institutions. The Act Of Modifications Of And Supplements To The Act Of Privatization Of Economy provides that all the citizens of age of the Republic of Montenegro be entitled to vouchers. For the MVP process, around 2.3 billion DEM was apportioned from the Development Fund and from the shares of the state capital.

Potentials by sector
1. Industry
Over the last 50 years, industry has been the chief carrier of the economic development ofMontenegro. In that period, the growth of the power industry, metallurgy (steel and aluminum), and transport infrastructure were making the basis for the overall development. The industrial facilities had been sized to the needs of the previous Yugoslavia so that 90% of the produce of Montenegro was marketed outside the Republic.Thus, Montenegro presently has at its disposal the facilities for producing 400,000 tons of crude steel; 1,000,000 tons of bauxite; 280,000 tones of alumna; 100,000 tons of aluminum; 75,000 tons of sea salt; 2,700,000 tons of coal; while the power plants (hydro-electric power plants of Perucica and Piva, and the thermoelectric power plant of Pljevlja) produce around 3 bn KWh per year.

Such a basic economic structure is supplemented with a variety of industries – metal-processing, engineering, wood-processing, textile, chemical, leather and footwear, ready-made clothes, household appliances, construction and forestry machines – as well as with significant capacities of the building trade.Moreover, there are considerable capacities of industrial processing and finishing of agricultural products: abattoirs; fish-processing plants; flour mills with grain silos; dairies; bakeries; breweries and juice factories; fruit processing factories; grape processing plants and wine cellars; medicinal herbs processing plants; tobacco/cigarettes industry; confectioners, etc.Due to isolation of FRY and the war waged in its neighborhood, the state in this sector of economy is poorer than before, but with adequate investments and modernization of the production programs the outputs can within a relatively short period of time again become competitive in the world market.

2. Agriculture
Agricultural lands and water resources are well preserved from the industrial pollution and thus provide for the production of healthy (organic) foods, particularly meat (poultry, lamb, goat, veal/beef); then milk and dairy produce; honey; fish; vegetables (tomato, pepper, cucumber, and other); fruits (plum, apple, grapes, citrus fruits, olive); high quality wines (Vranac, Krstac, and others); as well as naturally pure potable water of superior quality (tested to the highest world’s standards). Growing on the Montenegrin soil are some specific herbs such as “forest fruits” (blueberries, edible mushrooms) and wild medicinal herbs, especially sage (Salvia officinalis), whose exceptional properties are known throughout the world.Forests and woodlands cover the area of 720,000 ha, thus making 54% of the total surface area of the Republic; of these, the major part (572,000 ha) is in the north-east.

3. Maritime economy and transport
Montenegro has a fleet of more than 40 ships, with the total carrying capacity of 1,000,000 tons. The Port of Bar, at the entrance to the Adriatic, is equipped for handling the cargo of around 5 million tons annually. In the immediate hinterland of the Port is the Free Trade Zone, offering broad possibilities for the development of manufacturing and service activities and for the construction of warehouses, from which the goods can be easily transported by sea or by Bar-Belgrade railroad and further to the Central Europe. The road network of Montenegro is 5,227 km, of which 1,729 km are modern arterial and regional roads while the rest are local. The total length of the normal-gauge railroads is 250 km, electrified on their most part. The railway junction in Podgorica connects the inland with the Adriatic sea via (the Port of) Bar, whereas the railroad Podgorica-Bozaj connects Montenegro with the neighboring Albania.

Montenegro is third in Europe in terms of per capita foreign direct investment, and so far it has had wealthy Russians primarily to thank. Russian investments totals an estimated at $2 billion, owning among other strategic assets the aluminum factory in Podgorica. And Russians also

account for the largest growth rate among international tourists. The increased exposure from their powerful norther neighbor has expectedly received some popular backlash. Most Montenegrins hope that NATO membership and a possible fast track to the EU will give them more leverage to attract Western capital and reduce Russian dependency. Because for now, a country with GDP per capita of less than $5,000 isn’t exactly in a position to be picky.

SPORTS

Serbia and Montenegro were represented by a single football team in the 2006 FIFA World Cup tournament, despite having formally split just weeks prior to its start. Following this event, this team has been inherited by Serbia, while a new one was organized to represent Montenegro in international competitions.On March 24, 2007, the Montenegrin national team came from behind to win its first ever fixture,2-1, in a friendly game against Hungary at the Podgorica Stadium.On their 119th Session in Guatemala City in July 2007, the International Olympic Committee granted recognition and membership to the newly formed Montenegrin National Olympic Committee. Montenegro made its debut at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing.

Water polo is one of the most popular sports in the country. Montenegro won the European Championships in Malaga, Spain on July 13, 2008 over Serbia 6-5 in a game that was tied 5-5 after four quarters. This was Montenegro’s first major international competition for which they had to qualify through two LEN tournaments. Montenegro’s first division in water polo consists of five clubs, all with an annual budget of one million Euros and more – VK Primorac Kotor (2007 and 2008 Montenegro champions), VK Jadran Herceg Novi (2006 champions of Serbia-Montenegro), VK Budvanska Rivijera Budva, VK Prcanj and VK Bijela. From the coming season 2008-09 they will be joined by a sixth club, VK Cattaro. Additionally, they qualified for the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing but did not win.

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA : CRADLE OF BALKAN CONFLICTS

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA                                                                             CRADLE OF BALKAN CONFLICTS

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a landlocked country (except for 26 km to Adriatic Sea whereNeum is only seaside town in Bosnia and Herzegovina) on the Balkan peninsula of South Eastern Europe with an area of 51,129 square kilometres ( Capital : Sarajevo ). Bordered by Croatia to the north, west and south, Serbia to the east, and Montenegro to the south, Bosnia and Herzegovina is almost landlocked, except for 26 kilometres of the Adriatic Sea coastline, centered around the town of Neum.The interior of the country is mountainous in the center and south, hilly in the northwest, and flat in the northeast. It is the largest geographic region of the modern state with moderate continental climate, marked by hot summers and cold, snowy winters.Smaller Herzegovina is the southern tip of the country, with Mediterranean climate and topography.Bosnia and Herzegovina’s natural resources are highly abundant.

FLAG DESCRIPTION :

Bosnia and Herzegovina : A wide medium blue vertical band on the fly side with a yellow isosceles triangle abutting the band and the top of the flag; the remainder of the flag is medium blue with seven full five-pointed white stars and two half stars top and bottom along the hypotenuse of the triangle.

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS :

The 1995 Dayton peace accord was of the opinion that “Bosnia remains unready for unguided ownership of its own future – ethnic nationalism remains too strong.” ans so ended up setting : a Bosniak-Croat Federation of Bosnia and Hercegovina, and the Bosnian Serb Republic, or Republika Srpska.

The country is politically decentralized and comprises 2 first-order administrative divisions and 1 internationally supervised district* –
Brcko district ( Capital : Brcko )
+
the Bosniak/Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina Federation ( Capital : Sarajevo )
+
the Bosnian Serb-led Republika Srpska ( Capital : Banja Luka )
NOTE : Brcko district is in northeastern Bosnia and is an administrative unit under the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina; the district remains under international supervision.

EXECUTIVE BRANCH :

The three members of the presidency (one Bosniak, one Croat, one Serb) are elected by popular vote for a four-year term (eligible for a second term, but then ineligible for four years).

ETHNICITY

The country is home to three ethnic groups :
Bosniak 48%, Serb 37.1%, Croat 14.3%, other 0.6% (2000)
Regardless of ethnicity, a citizen of Bosnia and Herzegovina is often identified in English as a Bosnian. In Bosnia, the distinction between a Bosnian and a Herzegovinian is maintained as a regional, rather than an ethnic distinction and different faiths observed are : Muslim 40%, Orthodox 31%, Roman Catholic 15%, other 14%

ECONOMY :

The Nominal GDP per capita: $3,802 as Bosnia and Herzegovina ranked next to Macedonia as the poorest republic in the old Yugoslav federation.The national currency is konvertibilna marka (pegged to the Euro).

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA DURING WORLD WAR II ( 1941 – 1945 )

Once the kingdom of Yugoslavia was conquered by Nazi forces in World War II, all of Bosnia was ceded to the Independent State of Croatia. The Nazi rule over Bosnia led to widespread persecution of Jewish, Serbian and Gypsy civilians. The Jewish population was nearly exterminated and roughly at least 200,000 Serbs died as a result of genocide perpetrated by the Germans and Croatian Ustasha.Many Serbs in the area took up arms and joined the Partisans and Chetniks; a nationalist and royalist resistance movement that conducted guerrilla warfare against both the fascist Ustashe and the communist Partisans.The Chetniks received initial support from the UK and USA.Most Chetniks were Serbs and Montenegrins, although the army also included some Slovenes, Croats, and Muslims by nationality.Starting in 1941, Yugoslav communists under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito organized their own multi-ethnic resistance group, the Partisans, who fought against both Axis and Chetnik forces. On November 25, 1943 the Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia with Tito at its helm held a founding conference in Jajce where Bosnia and Herzegovina was re-established as a republic within the Yugoslavian federation in its Habsburg borders. Military success eventually prompted the Allies to support the Partisans, but Josip Broz Tito declined their offer to help and relied on his own forces instead. All the major military offensives by the antifascist movement of Yugoslavia against Nazis and their local supporters were conducted in Bosnia-Herzegovina and its peoples bore the brunt of fighting. Eventually the end of the war resulted in the establishment of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, with the constitution of 1946 officially making Bosnia and Herzegovina one of six constituent republics in the new state.

The secret meeting ( held at Karadordevo, Vojvodina, Serbia ) in March, 1991 between Croatian President Tudman and Serbian President Slobodan Miloševic broke down where they wanted to redistribute Bosnia and Herzegovina between Croatia and Serbia. Serbia wanted all lands where Serbs had a majority, eastern and western Bosnia. Croatian leader Franjo Tudman also aimed at securing parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina with Croatian majority.

THE BOSNIAN WAR ( 1992 – 1995 )

The 1990 parliamentary elections led to a national assembly dominated by three ethnically-based parties, which had formed a loose coalition to oust the communists from power. Croatia and Slovenia’s subsequent declarations of independence and the warfare that ensued placed Bosnia and Herzegovina and its three constituent peoples in an awkward position. A significant split soon developed on the issue of whether to stay with the Yugoslav federation (overwhelmingly favored among Serbs) or seek independence (overwhelmingly favored among Bosniaks and Croats). The Serb members of parliament, consisting mainly of the Serb Democratic Party members, abandoned the central parliament in Sarajevo, and formed the Assembly of the Serb People of Bosnia and Herzegovina on October 24, 1991, which marked the end of the tri-ethnic coalition that governed after the elections in 1990. This Assembly established the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on January 9, 1992, which became Republika Srpska in August 1992. On November 18, 1991, the party branch in Bosnia and Herzegovina of the ruling party in the Republic of Croatia, the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ), proclaimed the existence of the Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia, as a separate “political, cultural, economic and territorial whole,” on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with Croat Defence Council (HVO) as its military part.The Bosnian government did not recognize it. The Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina declared Herzeg-Bosnia illegal, first on September 14, 1992 and again on January 20, 1994.During the referendum there was 63.7% turnout amongst which 99.4% and wanted to seccede from the Yugoslav federation.Following a tense period of escalating tensions and sporadic military incidents, open warfare began in Sarajevo on April 6.After securing Eastern Bosnia, the Serb forces – military, police, the paramilitaries and, sometimes, even Serb villagers conducted genocide on non-serbians,to secure more territory.

In June 1992 the focus switched to the towns of Novi Travnik and Gornji Vakuf where the Croat Defence Council (HVO) efforts to gain control were resisted.

SREBENICA MASSACRE

An exhaustive investigation bosed on hundreds of interviews, confidential UN documents by Pulitzer Prize winner David Rohde ( see at http://www.haverford.edu/relg/sells/srebrenica/srebrenica.html ) exposes those responsible for the July 1995 fall of the world’s first UN-declared “safe area” and the death of 7.000 Bosnian Muslim men.The book highlights both US. and UN negligence and unveils new evidence that the commander ofthe UN forces in the former Yugoslavia may Intenlionally have allowed the world’s first UN-protected civilian “safe area” to be sacrificed.In their first interviews, Dutch peacekeepers and Bosnian Muslim survivors present additional evidence of Bosnian Serb Army commander General Ratko Mladic’s tight control over Bosnian Serb troops which killed an estimated 3,000 Bosnian Muslim prisoners in mass executions and 4,000 mostly unarmed Bosnian Muslims as they fled the fallen enclave. A detailed portrait of Mladic’s megalomania and hatred of Muslims emerges from previously unknown speeches and conversations with Muslim refugees and UN peacekeepers. On the day he took Srebrenica, Mladic stated in an interview with Serb television that he intended to exact revenge on Muslims in the area for Serbs killed in an uprising 150 years ago. Mladic, apparently emboldened by the West’s repeated failure to stand up to him militarily, mocked Dutch peacekeepers after the town fell, called them his “prisoners”.

U.S. and UN intelligence failed utterly in identifying the threat posed to Srebrenica by Bosnian Serb forces gathering around the enclave. Interviews with American diplomats and intelligence officials reveal that even on the day the town fell, U.S. and UN analysts were misjudging Bosnian Serb intentions. Several weeks before the faIl of Srebrenica, officials in the National Security Council privately discussed early versions of an “end game strategy” that involved the Muslim-led Bosnian government trading the three UN safe areas of Srebrenica, Zepa, and Gorazde to the Serbs. But U.S. officials have denied that they intentionally or tacitly allowed Srebrenica and then Zepa to fall to the Serbs. No concrete evidence that U.S. officials were involved in a secret conspiracy to sacrifice Srebrenica or Zepa has been found, but a secret cable from U.S. Ambassador to Croatia Peter Galbraith pleading with U.S. officials to save Zepa exists; it was ignored. Endgame details the poor performance of both U.S. intelligence and UN peacekeeping operations. Both bureaucracies–especially UN peacekeeping–are seemingly in need of major reform.

Srebrenica should not have fallen. The failure of UN commanders to call in NATO close air support and the Bosnian Army’s questionable decision to pull out Srebrenica’s commander and its top fifteen officers for retraining resulted in the rapid collapse of the town’s defenses. The fall of Srebrenica was not just a case of the United States, Britain, and France ignoring yet another distant atrocity. The international community stripped the town’s Muslim defenders of tanks and artillery and then turned them over to their potential executioners. The actions of the Clinton Administration and its allies aided, encouraged, and emboldened the executioners.

The investigation has found that most Bosnian Serbs were not involved in the torture and executions that occurred after Srebrenica’s fall. The Bosnian Serb leadership cultivated an atmosphere of nationalism and revenge through state-controlled media, and a minority of Serb ultra-nationalists appear to have carried out the atrocities. The fact that the majority of Serbs were not involved in the bloodletting makes comprehensive war crimes trials in the former Yugoslavia all the more important. For peace to last, nationalists on all sides must confront the crimes carried out by their leadership, and individuals, not groups, must be blamed for the atrocities, as was the case in Germany after World War II.

VOJVODINA : SWAYING OVER CENTURIES

VOJVODINA

SWAYING OVER CENTURIES

The Autonomous Province of Vojvodina is an autonomous province in Serbia, containing about 27% of its total population according to the 2002
Census. It is located in the northern part of the country, in the Pannonian plain. Its capital and largest city is Novi Sad, at over 300,000 people,
while its second largest city is Subotica. It has gained extensive rights of self-rule under the 1974 Yugoslav constitution, which gave both Kosovo
and Vojvodina de facto veto power in the Serbian and Yugoslav parliaments, as changes to their status could not be made without the consent of  the two Provincial Assemblies. The 1974 Serbian constitution, adopted at the same time, reiterated that “the Socialist Republic of Serbia
comprises the Socialist Autonomous Province of Vojvodina and the Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo, which originated in the common
struggle of nations and nationalities of Yugoslavia in the National Liberation War (the Second World War) and socialist revolution”.

Throughout history, the territory of present day Vojvodina has been a part of Dacia, the Roman Empire, the Hun Empire, the Byzantine Empire, the Gepid Kingdom, the Avar Khanate, the Frankish Kingdom, the Pannonian Croatia, the Great Moravia, the Bulgarian Empire, the Serbian Empire of Jovan Nenad, the Kingdom of Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, the Independent State of Croatia, the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and Serbia and Montenegro.

Since 2006, Vojvodina is part of an independent Serbia Between 1849 and 1860, this region was referred to as Voivodship of Serbia and

Tamiš Banat. The region was granted in 1918 by the allied powers to the Kingdom of Serbia, and in 1945 it became part of the People’s Republic of Serbia. Together with Kosovo, it enjoyed autonomous status between 1974 and 1988.

This undergone  periods of occupation of ……………………………………………..

ROMAN RULE

During Roman rule, Sirmium (today’s Sremska Mitrovica) was one of the four capital cities of the Roman Empire and six Roman Emperors were
born in this city or in its surroundings. The city was also the capital of several Roman administrative units, including the Lower Pannonia, the
Pannonia Secunda, the Diocese of Pannonia, and the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum. Roman rule lasted until the 5th century, after which the
region came into the possession of various peoples and states. While Banat was a part of the Roman province of Dacia, Syrmium and Backa belonged to a Roman province of Lower Pannonia.

HUNGARIAN RULE

Most of Vojvodina became part of the Hungarian kingdom in the 10th century. It stayed part of Hungary until 1918, excepting for the period of the Ottoman conquest.Its demographic balance started changing at the end of the 14th century, as it welcomed Serbian refugees fleeing from territories conquered by the Ottoman army. At the time of the first Turkish census, in 1557-8, the northern parts of the territory still had a Hungarian majority. Large numbers of Serbs were settled as a conscious policy on the part of the Habsburg emperor at the end of the 17th century. They were granted widespread exceptions and communal rights, in exchange for providing a border militia that could be mobilised against invaders from the south, as well as in case of civil unrest in Hungary.In 1716, Vienna temporarily forbade settlement by Hungarians and Jews in the area, and large numbers of German speakers were settled instead. From 1782, Protestant Hungarians, Germans and Slovakians settled in large numbers again.

During the 1848-49 uprising, Vienna successfully mobilised the Serbian militias against the Hungarian government and the local Hungarians. The
civil war hit this area perhaps the hardest, with terrible atrocities committed against the civilian populations. Following victory by the Habsburgs, a new administrative territory was created in the south that was maintained until 1860, with German and Illyrian as official languages.The era following 1867 was a period of economic flourishing but strained ethnic relations under the surface. The peace treaty of 1918 gave Vojvodina to
the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croatians and Slovenes. Between 1918 and 1940, 80 000 Serbs were settled in the province.

OTTOMAN RULE (1527-1716)

After the defeat of the Hungarian Kingdom at Mohács by the Ottoman Empire, the region fell into a period of anarchy and civil wars. In 1526

Jovan Nenad, a leader of the Serb mercenaries, established his rule in Bačka, northern Banat and a small part of Syrmia. He created an ephemeral independent state, with Subotica as its capital. At the peak of his power, Jovan Nenad proclaimed himself Serbian Emperor in Subotica. Taking advantage of the extremely confused military and political situation, the Hungarian noblemen from the region joined forces against him and defeated the Serbian troops in the summer of 1527. Emperor Jovan Nenad was assassinated and his state collapsed. A few decades later, the region was added to the Ottoman Empire, which ruled over it until the end of the 17th and the first half of the 18th century, when it was incorporated into the Habsburg Monarchy. The Treaty of Karlowitz of 1699, between Holy League and Ottoman Empire, marked the withdrawal of the Ottoman forces from Central Europe, and the supremacy of the Habsburg Empire in that part of the continent. According to the treaty, western part of Vojvodina passed to Habsburgs. Eastern part of it remained in Ottomans as Tamışvar Eyaleti until Austria conquest in 1716. This statement is ratified by treaty of Passarowitz in 1718.

PERIODS  OF SERBIAN AUTONOMY BEFORE 1918

At the beginning of Habsburg rule, most of the region was integrated into the Habsburg Military Frontier district, while western parts of Bačka were put under civil administration within Bač county. Later, the civil administration was expanded to other (mostly northern) parts of the region, while southern parts remained under military administration. Eastern part of it occupied by Ottomans between 1787-1788 during Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792).
At the May Assembly in Sremski Karlovci (May 13-15, 1848),Serbs declared the constitution of the Serbian Voivodship (Serbian Duchy),a Serbian autonomous region within the Austrian Empire. The Serbian Voivodship consisted of Syrmia, Bačka, Banat, and Baranja. The metropolitan of Sremski Karlovci, Josif Rajačić, was elected patriarch, while Stevan Šupljikac was chosen as first voivod (duke).

In November 1849, in accordance with a decision made by the Austrian emperor, this Serbian region was transformed into the new Austrian
crown land known as Voivodship of Serbia and Tamiš Banat. It consisted of Banat, Bačka and Syrmia, excluding the southern parts of these regions which were part of the Military Frontier. An Austrian governor seated in Temeschwar ruled the area, and the title of voivod belonged to the emperor himself. The full title of the emperor was “Grand Voivod of the Voivodship of Serbia” (German: Großwoiwode der Woiwodschaft Serbien). The province was abolished in 1860, and from 1867 was located again within the Hungarian Kingdom (part of Austria-Hungary).

At the end of World War I, the Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed. On October 29, 1918, Syrmia became a part of the State of Slovenes, Croats
and Serbs. On October 31, 1918, the Banat Republic was proclaimed in Temeschwar. The government of Hungary recognized its independence,
but it was short-lived.

UNIFICATION WITH SERBIA

On November 25, 1918, the Assembly of Serbs, Bunjevci, and other nations of Vojvodina in Novi Sad proclaimed the union of Vojvodina (Banat, Bačka and Baranja) with the Kingdom of Serbia (The assembly numbered 757 deputies, of which 578 were Serbs, 84 Bunjevci, 62 Slovaks, 21 Rusyns, 6 Germans, 3 Šokci, 2 Croats, and 1 Hungarian). One day before this, on November 24, the Assembly of Syrmia also proclaimed the union of Syrmia with Serbia. On December 1, 1918, Vojvodina officially became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.

Between 1929 and 1941, the region was known as the Danube Banovina, a province of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Its capital city was Novi Sad.

The Banovina consisted of the Syrmia, Bačka, Banat, Baranja, Šumadija, and Braničevo regions.Between 1941 and 1944, during World War II, the Axis Powers divided and occupied Vojvodina. Bačka and Baranja were attached to Horthy’s Hungary and Syrmia was attached to the Independent State of Croatia. A smaller Danube Banovina (including Banat, Šumadija, and Braničevo) existed as part of what was known as “Nedic’s Serbia.” The administrative centre of this smaller province was Smederevo. However, Banat itself was a separate autonomous region ruled by its German minority.

Axis occupation ended in 1944 and the region was politically restored in 1945 as an autonomous province of Serbia (incorporating Syrmia, Banat, and Bačka). Instead of the previous name (Danube Banovina), the region regained its historical name of Vojvodina, while its capital city

remained at Novi Sad.

KOSOVO:FROM AUTONOMY TO INDEPENDENCE

KOSOVO : FROM AUTONOMY TO INDEPENDENCE

Kosovo is a landlocked region with presenlt an area of 10,887 sq km and was part of the lands of Thraco-Illyrian tribes, then of the Roman, Byzantine, Bulgarian, Serbian, and Ottoman empires.

It comprises of various Ethnic groups:
Albanians 88%, Serbs 7%, other 5% (Bosniak, Gorani, Roma, Turk, Ashkali, Egyptian)

Religions:
Muslim, Serbian Orthodox, Roman Catholic

The official currency of Kosovo is the Euro and GDP – per capita (PPP) is $1,800 as by 2007.

In the 20th century it was part of the kingdoms of Serbia and Montenegro and their successor state, Yugoslavia. Following the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia with its stated goal to halt killing of civilians during the Kosovo War, the territory came under the interim administration of the United Nations (UNMIK). In February 2008, the Assembly of Kosovo declared Kosovo’s independence as the Republic of Kosovo. As of 5 December 2008, its independence is recognised by 53 UN member states and the Republic of China (Taiwan) though not by others.

“Kosovo” is a Serbian place name, more fully “kosovo polje”, meaning the “field (or plain) of blackbirds” which is the harbinger of spring.
It’s capital is Prishtina.Kosovo’s “black bird” is no crow, nor raven, no starling nor grackle, but “turdus merula”,European cousin of the North American rusty-bellied thrush (“turdus migratorius”), which Yankees call the “robin”.The term Kosovo is used for the eastern part, while the western part is called “Metohija”.

HISTORY

The formation of the Republic of Kosovo is a result of the turmoils of the disintegration of Yugoslavia, particularly the Kosovo War of 1996 to 1999, but it is suffused with issues dating back to the rise of nationalism in the Balkans under Ottoman rule in the 19th century, Albanian vs. Serbian nationalisms in particular, the latter notably surrounding the Battle of Kosovo eponymous with the Kosovo region.

BALKAN WARS TO WORLD WAR II

The Young Turk movement supported a centralist rule and opposed any sort of autonomy desired by Kosovars, and particularly the Albanians. In 1910, an Albanian uprising spread from Pristina and lasted until the Ottoman Sultan’s visit to Kosovo in June 1911.In 1912, during the Balkan Wars, most of Kosovo was captured by the Kingdom of Serbia, while the region of Metohija (Albanian: Dukagjini Valley) was taken by the Kingdom of Montenegro. An exodus of the local Albanian population occurred. The Serbian authorities planned a colonization of Kosovo.Numerous colonist Serb families moved into Kosovo, equalizing the demographic balance between Albanians and Serbs. Kosovo’s status within Serbia was finalized the following year at the Treaty of London.

In the winter of 1915-1916, during World War I, Kosovo saw a large exodus of the Serbian army which became known as the Great Serbian Retreat, as Kosovo was occupied by Bulgarians and Austro-Hungarians. In 1918, the Serbian Army pushed the Central Powers out of Kosovo. After World War I ended, the Monarchy was then transformed into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenians on 1 December 1918.

Kosovo was split into four counties, three being a part of Serbia (Zvecan, Kosovo and southern Metohija) and one of Montenegro (northern Metohija). However, the new administration system since 26 April 1922 split Kosovo among three Areas of the Kingdom: Kosovo, Rascia and Zeta. In 1929, the Kingdom was transformed into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and the territories of Kosovo were reorganized among the Banate of Zeta, the Banate of Morava and the Banate of Vardar.

In order to change the ethnic composition of Kosovo, between 1912-1941 a large-scale Serbian re-colonization of Kosovo was undertaken by the Belgrade government.Meanwhile, Kosovar Albanians’ right to receive education in their own language was denied, as they weren’t officially designated as a minority. Albanians and other Muslims were forced to emigrate,mainly with the land reform which struck Albanian landowners in 1919, but also with direct violent measures.In 1935 and 1938 two agreements between the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and Turkey were signed on the expatriation of 240,000 Albanians to Turkey, which was not completed because of the outbreak of World War II.

The Kingdom of Yugoslavia lasted until the World War II Axis invasion of 1941, when the greatest part of Kosovo became a part of Italian-controlled Albania, and smaller bits by the Tsardom of Bulgaria and German-occupied Military Administration of Serbia. At the 1944 wartime Bujan conference the Kosovar communist resistance leaders passed a resolution on the postwar assignment of Kosovo to Albania, but their opinion was later disregarded.After numerous uprisings of Partisans led by Fadil Hoxha, Kosovo was liberated after 1944 with the help of the Albanian partisans of the Comintern and became a province of Serbia within the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia.

KOSOVO IN YUGOSLAVIA

The province first took shape with its present borders in 1945 as the Autonomous Kosovo-Metohian Area.Prior to world War II, no entity by the name of Kosovo had existed where-as in the Ottoman Empire (which previously controlled the territory), it had been a vilayet with its borders having been revised on several occasions. When the Ottoman province had last existed,it included areas which were by now either ceded to Albania, or found themselves within the newly created Yugoslav republics of Montenegro, or Macedonia (including its previous capital, Skopje) with another part in the Sandžak region of Central Serbia.

The violent oppression and forced expatriation of Albanians resumed, particularly after 1953, when Josip Broz Tito reached an agreement with Turkish Foreign Minister Mehmet Fuat Köprülü to push Yugoslavian Albanians to declare themselves Turks and leave for Turkey.[18]

The harsh repressions and expatriations came to an end when the 4th Plenum of the Central Committee of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia held at Brijuni (the Brioni Plenum) in July 1966 ousted Yugoslavian Interior Minister and Vice President Aleksandar Rankovic who was instrumental in the brutal treatment of Kosovar Albanians.In the late 1960s Kosovo gained limited internal autonomy.In February 1970 the University of Pristina was opened, providing higher education in Albanian.In the 1974 constitution, the Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo’s government received more powers, including the highest governmental titles – President and Prime Minister and a seat in the Federal Presidency which made it a de facto Republic within the Federation, but remaining a Socialist Autonomous Province within the Socialist Republic of Serbia (similar rights were extended to Vojvodina). In Kosovo Serbo-Croatian, Albanian and Turkish were defined as official languages on the provincial level. Due to very high birth rates, the number of Albanians increased from 75% to over 90%. In contrast, the number of Serbs barely increased, and in fact dropped from 15% to 8% of the total population, since many Serbs departed from Kosovo as a response to the tight economic climate and increased incidents of alleged harassment from their Albanian neighbors. While there was tension, charges of “genocide” and planned harassments have been debunked as an excuse to revoke Kosovo’s autonomy.

For example in 1986 the Serbian Orthodox Church published an official, though false, claim that Kosovo Serbs were being subjected to an Albanian program of ‘Genocide’. Even though they were disproven by police statistics, they received wide play in the Serbian press and that lead to further ethnic problems and eventual removal of Kosovo’s status. Beginning in March 1981, Kosovar Albanian students of the University of Pristina organized protests seeking that Kosovo become a republic within Yugoslavia and human rights.The protests were brutally suppressed by the police and army, with many protesters arrested.During the 1980s, ethnic tensions continued with frequent violent outbreaks against Yugoslav state authorities resulting in a further increase in emigration of Kosovo Serbs and other ethnic groups.The Yugoslav leadership tried to suppress protests of Kosovo Serbs seeking protection from ethnic discrimination and violence.

Since Serbians viewed Kosovo as their cultural heartland. Under Milosevic’s leadership,Kosovo’s autonomy was drastically curtailed.Kosovo Albanian leaders responded in 1991 by organizing a referendum that declared Kosovo independent from Serbia.The Milosevic regime carried out repressive measures against the Albanians in the early 1990s.Dissatisfied with passive resistance of Ibrahim Rugova who led the unofficial government of Kosovo,they created the Kosovo Liberation Army and launched an insurgency. In 1998, Milosevic authorized a counter -insurgency campaign that resulted in massacres and massive expulsions of ethnic Albanians by Serbian military, police, and paramilitary forces.

NICOLE KIDMAN IN KOSOVO

Kidman arrived in Kosovo’s capital, Pristina, after attending the premiere of her movie “Fur” at the inaugural Rome Film Festival.She shook hands with Kosovo’s top U.N. official, Joachim Ruecker, dozens of local leaders and diplomats attending a welcome reception.
Kosovars

She is to spend two days in Kosovo as UNIFEM(United Nations Development Fund for Women) Goodwill Ambassador.”I’m here … to learn so that I can help your country at this crucial, crucial time for the future,”.Kidman said. “To meet people, hear their stories and educate myself, and I suppose be a voice for you if you need it.”She pledged to provide a voice for the troubled province.

The visit provided Ms. Kidman an opportunity to learn first-hand about the experiences of women in Kosovo and UNIFEM’s efforts to support them. Together with UNIFEM Executive Director Noeleen Heyzer, she met with women who had been victims of sexual violence,war widows, and women who are still searching for missing family members. She also met with women leaders and representatives from civil society. read more

“I was very moved by the many women I met during my Kosovo trip. I learned so much from the experiences that they were willing to share — they spoke about how violence has disrupted their lives and the lives of their children.They talked to me about the tragedy of losing sons and husbands, but they also inspired me with their determination to build a better future for themselves and their families, and to claim their rights as individuals and citizens”.

SERBIA : POWERFUL OF ALL THE REPUBLICS

SERBIA : THE BIGGER PLAYER IN YUGOSLAVIA

The present land mass of landlocked Serbia is 77,474 sq km with it’s capital being Belgrade titled as “City of the Future of South Europe” in 2006.It’s GDP – per capita (PPP) : $10,400 (2007 est.) with an estimated oil reserves of  77.5 million bbl.Whatever it’s demography and topography it always nursed the ambition of a “Greater Serbia”  so as to bring all the slav speaking people together as they had endured exploitation for centuries.It is a melting  – pot and over centuries various ethnic races came together with  equally diverse  religions.

Ethnic groups :
Serb 82.9%, Hungarian 3.9%, Romany (Gypsy) 1.4%, Yugoslavs 1.1%, Bosniaks 1.8%, Montenegrin 0.9%, other 8% (2002 census)

Religions :
Serbian Orthodox 85%, Catholic 5.5%, Protestant 1.1%, Muslim 3.2%, unspecified 2.6%, and others 2.6%

GEOGRAPHY

For centuries, located at, and shaped by, the cultural boundaries between the East and the West, a powerful medieval kingdom – later renamed the Serbian Empire – occupied much of the Balkans. The Serbian state disappeared by the mid-16th century, torn by domestic feuds, Ottoman-, Venetian-, Hungarian- and later, Austrian occupations. The success of the Serbian revolution in 1817 marked the birth of modern Serbia, centered in the Šumadija region. Within a century it reacquired Kosovo and Metohija, Raška region and Vardar Macedonia from the Ottoman Empire. Likewise, in 1918 the former autonomous Habsburg crownland of Vojvodina proclaimed its secession from Austria-Hungary to unite with the Serbia, preceded by the Syrmia region.Thus,the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes was formed in 1918; its name was changed to Yugoslavia in 1929.

Serbia is at the crossroads between Central, Southern and Eastern Europe, between the Balkan peninsula and the Pannonian Plain. The country is intersected by several major navigable rivers: the Danube (2850km), Sava (945 km), Tisa (1358km), joined by the Timis River (350 km) and Begej (254 km), all of which connect Serbia with Northern and Western Europe (through the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal – North Sea route), to Eastern Europe (via the Tisa–, Timis–, Begej – and Danube – Black Sea routes) and to Southern Europe (via the Sava river). The two largest Serbian cities – Belgrade and Novi Sad – are major regional Danubian harbours. The northern third of the country is located entirely within the Central European Pannonian Plain. The easternmost tip of Serbia extends into the Wallachian Plain. The north eastern border of the country is determined by the Carpathian Mountain range, which runs through the whole of Central Europe. The Southern Carpathians meet the Balkan Mountains, following the course of the Velika Morava, a 500 km long (partially navigable) river. The Midžor peak is the highest point in eastern Serbia at 2156 m. In the southeast, the Balkan Mountains meet the Rhodope Mountains, connecting the country with Greece. The Šar Mountains of Kosovo form the border with Albania, with one of the highest peaks in the region, Djeravica (2656 m). Dinaric Alps of Serbia follow the flow of the Drina river (at 350 km navigable for smaller vessels only) overlooking the Dinaric peaks on the opposite shore in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Over a quarter of Serbia’s overall landmass (27%) is covered by forest.In 2010, as projected, the national parks will take up 10% of the country’s entire territory.

HISTORY
The Early modern period saw the loss of Serbia’s independence to the Kingdom of Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, interrupted briefly by the revolutionary state of the Emperor Jovan Nenad in the 16th century. Modern times witnessed the rise of the Habsburg Monarchy (known as the Austrian Empire, later Austria-Hungary), which fought many wars against the Ottoman Turks for supremacy over Serbia. Three Austrian invasions and numerous rebellions (such as the Banat Uprising) constantly challenged Ottoman rule. Vojvodina endured a century long Ottoman occupation before being ceded to the Habsburg Empire in the 17th-18th centuries under the terms of the Treaty of Karlowitz (Sremski Karlovci). As the Great Serb Migrations depopulated most of Kosovo and Serbia proper, the Serbs sought refuge in more prosperous North and West were granted imperial rights by the Austrian crown (under measures such as the Statuta Wallachorum in 1630). The Ottoman persecutions ofChristians culminated in the abolition and plunder of the Patriarchate of Pec in 1766.As Ottoman rule in the South grew ever more brutal, the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I formally granted the Serbs the right to their autonomous crown land, speeding up their migrations into Austria.

The quest for independence of Serbia began during the Serbian national revolution (1804-1817), and it lasted for several decades.The entrenchment of French troops in the western Balkans, the incessant political crises in the Ottoman Empire, the growing intensity of the Austro-Russian rivalry in the Balkans, the intermittent warfare which consumed the energies of French and Russian Empires and the outbreak of protracted hostilities between the Porte and Russia are but a few of the major international developments which directly or indirectly influenced the course of the Serbian revolt.During the First Serbian Uprising (first phase of the revolt) led by Karadorde Petrovic, Serbia was independent for almost a decade before the Ottoman army was able to reoccupy the country. Shortly after this, the Second Serbian Uprising began. Led by Miloš Obrenovic, it ended in 1815 with a compromise between the Serbian revolutionary army and the Ottoman authorities.

The Convention of Ackerman (1828), the Treaty of Adrianople (1829) and finally, the Hatt-i Sharif of 1830, recognised the suzerainty of Serbia with Miloš Obrenovic I as its hereditary Prince.The struggle for liberty, a more modern society and a nation-state in Serbia won a victory under first constitution in the Balkans on 15 February 1835. It was replaced by a more conservative Constitution in 1838.

In the two following decades (temporarily ruled by the Karadjordjevic dynasty) the Principality actively supported the neighboring Habsburg Serbs, especially during the 1848 revolutions. Interior minister Ilija Garašanin published The Draft (for South Slavic unification), which became the standpoint of Serbian foreign policy from the mid-19th century onwards. The government thus developed close ties with the Illyrian movement in Croatia-Slavonia (Austria-Hungary).

Following the clashes between the Ottoman army and civilians in Belgrade in 1862, and under pressure from the Great Powers, by 1867 the last Turkish soldiers left the Principality. By enacting a new constitution without consulting the Porte, Serbian diplomats confirmed the de facto independence of the country. In 1876, Montenegro and Serbia declared war on the Ottoman Empire, proclaiming their unification with Bosnia. The formal independence of the country was internationally recognized at the Congress of Berlin in 1878, which formally ended the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78; this treaty, however, prohibited Serbia from uniting with Principality of Montenegro, and placed Bosnia and Raška region under Austro-Hungarian occupation to prevent unification.

EVOLUTION OF THE KINGDOM OF SERBIA
From 1815 to 1903, Serbia was ruled by the House of Obrenovic (except from 1842 to 1858, when it was led by Prince Aleksandar Karadordevic). In 1882, Serbia, ruled by King Milan, was proclaimed a Kingdom. In 1903, the House of Karadordevic, (descendants of the revolutionary leader Ðorde Petrovic) assumed power. Serbia was the only country in the region that was allowed by the Great Powers to be ruled its own domestic dynasty. During the Balkan Wars (1912-1913), the Kingdom of Serbia tripled its territory by acquiring part of Macedonia, Kosovo, and parts of Serbia proper.

As for Vojvodina, during the 1848 revolution in Austria, Serbs of Vojvodina established an autonomous region known as Serbian Vojvodina. As of 1849, the region was transformed into a new Austrian crown land known as the Serbian Voivodship and Tamiš Banat. Although abolished in 1860, Habsburg emperors claimed the title Großwoiwode der Woiwodschaft Serbien until the end of the monarchy and the creation of Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in 1918.

WORLD WAR I AND THE BIRTH OF YUGOSLAVIA
On 28 June 1914 the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria at Sarajevo in Bosnia-Herzegovina by Gavrilo Princip (a Yugoslav unionist member of Young Bosnia) and an Austrian citizen, led to Austria-Hungary declaring war on Kingdom of Serbia. In defense of its ally Serbia, Russia started to mobilize its troops, which resulted in Austria-Hungary’s ally Germany declaring war on Russia. The retaliation by Austria-Hungary against Serbia activated a series of military alliances that set off a chain reaction of war declarations across the continent, leading to the outbreak of World War I within a month.

The Serbian Army won several major victories against Austria-Hungary at the beginning of World War I, such as the Battle of Cer and Battle of Kolubara – marking the first Allied victories against the Central Powers in World War I.Despite initial success it was eventually overpowered by the joint forces of the German Empire, Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria in 1915. Most of its army and some people went into exile to Greece and Corfu where they recovered, regrouped and returned to Macedonian front (World War I) to lead a final breakthrough through enemy lines on 15 September 1918, freeing Serbia again and defeating Austro-Hungarian Empire and Bulgaria.Serbia (with its major campaign) was a major Balkan Entente Powerwhich contributed significantly to the Allied victory in the Balkans in November 1918, especially by enforcing Bulgaria’s capitulation with the aid of France.The country was militarilly classified as a minor Entente power.Serbia was also among the main contributors to the capitulation of Austria-Hungary in Central Europe.

WORLD WAR II AND YUGOSLAVIA
The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was in a precarious position in World War II. Fearing an invasion by Nazi Germany, the Yugoslav Regent, Prince Paul, signed the Tripartite Pact with the Axis powers on 25 March 1941, triggering massive demonstrations in Belgrade. On 27 March, Prince Paul was overthrown by a military coup d’état (with British support) and replaced by the 17-year-old King Peter II. General Dušan Simovic became Peter’s Prime Minister and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia withdrew its support for the Axis.

In response to this Adolf Hitler launched an invasion of Yugoslavia on 6 April. By 17 April, unconditional surrender was signed in Belgrade. After the invasion, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was dissolved and, with Yugoslavia partitioned, the remaining portion of Serbia became part of the Military Administration of Serbia, under a joint German-Serb government, with military power controlled by the German armed forces, while a Serb civil government led by Milan Nedic was permitted to try to draw Serbs away from their opposition to the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia.

Not all of what is present-day Serbia was included as part of the military administration. Some of the contemporary Republic of Serbia was occupied by the Independent State of Croatia, the Kingdom of Hungary, the Kingdom of Bulgaria, the Fascist Italy’s Balkan protectorates, the Albanian Kingdom and the Kingdom of Montenegro. In addition to being occupied by the (Wehrmacht), from 1941 to 1945, Serbia was the scene of a civil war between Royalist Chetniks commanded by Draža Mihailovic and Communist Partisans commanded by Josip Broz Tito. Against these forces were arrayed Nedic’s units of the Serbian Volunteer Corps and Serbian State Guard.

GENOCIDE OF SERBS IN CROATIA BY THE USTASE REGIME
Serbia’s society was profoundly affected by the events that took place during World War II, especially in the neighboring Independent State of Croatia (Nezavisna Država Hrvatska, NDH), an Axis puppet state which controlled what is modern-day Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and parts of modern-day Serbia. The regime selected to led the puppet state was the Croatian ultranationalist and fascist Ustaše movement. The Ustase promised to purge the state of Serbs, Jews, and Roma who were subject to large-scale persecution and genocide, most notoriously at the Jasenovac concentration camp.The Jewish Virtual Library estimates that between 45,000 and 52,000 Serbs were killed at Jasenovac and between 330,000 and 390,000 Serbs were victims of the entire genocide campaign.The estimated number of Serbian children who died is between 35,000 and 50,000. The Yad Vashem center reports that over 600,000 Serbs were killed overall in the NDH,[63] with some 500,000 people of many nationalities and ethnicities murdered in one camp Jasenovac.After the war, official Yugoslav sources estimated over 700,000 victims, mostly Serbs. Misha Glenny suggests that the numbers of Serbs killed in the genocide was more than 400,000.

The atrocities that took place in Croatia against Serbs has led to a deep sense of antagonism by Serbs towards Croats, whose relations between each other had already been historically tense, but the war deeply aggravated this division. A number of governments have attempted to lessen. Reconciliation between the two peoples was attempted under Joseph Broz Tito’s policy of Brotherhood and Unity. To a degree this succeeded, as during the Tito-era, intermarriages between Serbs and Croats increased, but this effort was destroyed with the outbreak of the Yugoslav wars in the 1990s as rival Croat and Serb nationalism promoted xenophobia towards each other. The most recent attempt was made at the commemoration to the Serb casualties of the Jasenovic concentration camp in April 2003, when the Croatian president Stjepan Mesic apologized on behalf of Croatia to the victims of Jasenovac.In 2006, on the same occasion, he added that to every visitor to Jasenovac it must be clear that the “Holocaust, genocide and war crimes” took place there.Miloševic era, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and the Kosovo War
Main article: Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Miloševic era, and the Kosovo War

Slobodan Miloševic rose to power in Serbia in 1989 in the League of Communists of Serbia through a serious of coups against incumbent governing members. Miloševic promised reduction of powers for the autonomous provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina. This ignited tensions with the communist leadership of the other republics that eventually resulted in the secession of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, the Republic of Macedonia, and Slovenia from Yugoslavia.

Multiparty democracy was introduced in Serbia in 1990, officially dismantling the former one-party communist system. Critics of the Miloševic government claimed that the Serbian government continued to be authoritarian despite constitutional changes as Miloševic maintained strong personal influence over Serbia’s state media.Miloševic issued media blackouts of independent media stations’ coverage of protests against his government and restricted freedom of speech through reforms to the Serbian Penal Code which issued criminal sentences on anyone who “ridiculed” the government and its leaders, resulting in many people being arrested who opposed Miloševic and his government.

The period of political turmoil and conflict marked a rise in ethnic tensions and between Serbs and other ethnicities of the former Communist Yugoslavia as territorial claims of the different ethnic factions often crossed into each others’ claimed territories Serbs who had criticized the nationalist atmosphere, the Serbian government, or the Serb political entities in Bosnia and Croatia were reported to be harassed, threatened, or killed by nationalist Serbs. Serbs in Serbia feared that the nationalist and separatist government of Croatia was led by Ustase sympathizers who would oppress Serbs living in Croatia. This view of the Croatian government was promoted by Miloševic which also accused the separatist government of Bosnia and Herzegovina of being led by Islamic fundamentalists. The governments of Croatia and Bosnia in turn accused the Serbian government of attempting to create a Greater Serbia. These views led to a heightening of xenophobia between the peoples during the wars.

In 1992, the governments of Serbia and Montenegro agreed to the creation of a new Yugoslav federation called the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia which abandoned the predecessor SFRY’s official endorsement of communism, but instead endorsed democracy.

In response to accusations that the Yugoslav government was financially and militarily supporting the Serb military forces in Bosnia & Herzegovina and Croatia, sanctions were imposed by the United Nations, during the 1990s, which led to political isolation, economic decline and hardship, and serious hyperinflation of currency in Yugoslavia.

Miloševic represented the Bosnian Serbs at the Dayton peace agreement in 1995, signing the agreement which ended the Bosnian War that internally partitioned Bosnia & Herzegovina largely along ethnic lines into a Serb republic and a Bosniak-Croat federation.

When the ruling Socialist Party of Serbia refused to accept municipal election results in 1997 which resulted in defeat in municipal municipalties, Serbians engaged in large protests against the Serbian government, government forces held back the protesters.

Reports and accusations of war crimes being committed by Yugoslav and Serbian security forces led to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) launching “Operation Allied Force”, bombing Yugoslavia for 78 days in order to stop Yugoslav military operations in Kosovo. The bombing ends with the agreement which upheld Yugoslav (and later Serbian) sovereignty over Kosovo but replaced Serbian government of the province with a UN administration, the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK).[77]

In 1991, Croatia, Slovenia, and Macedonia declared independence, followed by Bosnia in 1992. The remaining republics of Serbia and Montenegro declared a new Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) in April 1992 and under Slobodan Milosevic’s leadership, Serbia led various military campaigns to unite ethnic Serbs in neighboring republics into a “Greater Serbia.” These actions led to Yugoslavia being ousted from the UN in 1992, but Serbia continued its – ultimately unsuccessful – campaign until signing the Dayton Peace Accords in 1995.

In 1998, an ethnic Albanian insurgency in the formerly autonomous Serbian province of Kosovo provoked a Serbian counterinsurgency campaign that resulted in massacres and massive expulsions of ethnic Albanians living in Kosovo. The MILOSEVIC government’s rejection of a proposed international settlement led to NATO’s bombing of Serbia in the spring of 1999 and to the eventual withdrawal of Serbian military and police forces from Kosovo in June 1999.In 2003, the FRY became Serbia and Montenegro, a loose federation of the two republics with a federal level parliament.The country’s capital, Belgrade, was titled “City of the Future of South Europe” in 2006.On 17 February 2008, the UNMIK-administered province of Kosovo declared itself independent of Serbia.

Disputes : Several thousand NATO-led KFOR peacekeepers under UNMIK authority continue to keep the peace within Kosovo between the ethnic Albanian majority and the Serb minority in Kosovo; Serbia delimited about half of the boundary with Bosnia and Herzegovina, but sections along the Drina River remain in dispute

SPORT

The Sport in Serbia revolves mostly around team sports: football, basketball, water polo, volleyball, handball, and, more recently, tennis. The two main football clubs in Serbia are Red Star Belgrade and FK Partizan, both from capital Belgrade. Red Star is the only Serbian and former Yugoslav club that has won a UEFA competition, winning the 1991 European Cup in Bari, Italy. The same year in Tokyo, Japan the club won the Intercontinental Cup. Partizan is the first club from Serbia to take part in the UEFA Champions League group stages subsequent to the breakup of the Former Yugoslavia. The matches between two rival clubs are known as “Eternal Derby”

Serbia was host of EuroBasket 2005. FIBA considers Serbia national basketball team the direct descendant of the famous Yugoslavia national basketball team. KK Partizan was the European champion in 1992 with curiosity of winning the title, although playing all but one of the games (crucial quarter-final game vs. Knorr) on foreign grounds; FIBA decided not to allow teams from Former Yugoslavia play their home games at their home venues, because of open hostilities in the region. KK Partizan was not allowed to defend the title in the 1992-1993 season, because of UN sanction. Players from Serbia made deep footprint in history of basketball, having success both in the top leagues of Europe and in the NBA. Serbia is one of the traditional powerhouses of world basketball, winning various FIBA World Championships, multiple Eurobaskets and Olympic medals (albeit as FR Yugoslavia).

Jelena Jankovic is World number one amongst Women in the game of Lawn Tennis just as Novak Djoković is World number three amongst Men in the game of Lawn Tennis.

Serbian capital Belgrade hosted the 2006 Men’s European Water Polo Championship. The Serbia national water polo team was previously known as the Yugoslavia national water polo team. After becoming independent, Serbia have won 2006 European championship, finished as runner-up in 2008 and won bronze medal at 2008 Summer Olympics held in Beijing. VK Partizan won 6 titles of European champion and it is the second best European team in history of water polo.

Serbia and Italy were host nations at 2005 Men’s European Volleyball Championship. The Serbia men’s national volleyball team is the direct descendant of Yugoslavia men’s national volleyball team. After becoming independent, Serbia won bronze medal at 2007 Men’s European Volleyball Championship held in Moscow.

Serbian tennis players Jelena Janković,Ana Ivanović,Novak Đoković,Nenad Zimonjić and Janko Tipsarević are very successful and led to a popularisation of tennis in Serbia. Serbia Davis Cup team qualified for the 2008 Davis Cup World Group.Milorad Čavić in swimming, Olivera Jevtić, Dragutin Topić in athletics, Aleksandar Karakašević in table tennis, Jasna Šekarić in shooting are also very popular athletes in Serbia.

GROWTH AND EVAPOURATION OF YUGOSLAVIA

GENESIS AND DOWNFALL OF YUGOSLAVIA
Yugoslavia (Serbo-Croatian, Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian, Montenegrin, Slovene, Macedonian(literally in English: “South Slavia” or “Land of South Slavs”) is a term that describes three political entities that existed successively on the Balkan Peninsula in Europe, during most of the 20th century.It was formed with the union of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Montenegro, while the regions of Kosovo, Vojvodina and Macedonia were parts of Serbia.

The first country to be known by this name was the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, which before 3 October 1929 was known as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. It was established on 1 December 1918 by the union of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and the Kingdom of
Serbia. It was invaded by the Axis powers in 1941, and because of the events that followed, was officially abolished in 1945.On April 17, 1941, Yugoslavia fell prey to Nazi occupation and was reorganised into four provinces under foreign policy; the country was re-established as
Democratic Federal Yugoslavia in 1945, in addition with the seizing of territory from Italy.

The second country with this name was the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia, proclaimed in 1943 by the Yugoslav Partisans resistance movement in World War II. It was renamed to the Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia in 1946, when a communist government was established. In 1963, it was renamed again to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY). This was the largest Yugoslav state, as Istria and Rijeka were added to the new Yugoslavia after the end of World War II. The constituent Socialist Republics(SR) that made up the country, were :
SR Bosnia and Herzegovina, SR Croatia, SR Macedonia, SR Montenegro, SR Serbia (including the autonomous provinces of SAP Vojvodina and SAP Kosovo and Metohija, later simply SAP Kosovo) and SR Slovenia. Starting in 1991, the SFRY disintegrated in the Yugoslav Wars which followed the secession of most of the republic’s constituent entities.
The last country to bear the name was the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) established on March 27, 1992. It was a federation on the territory of the two remaining (non-secessionist) republics of Serbia (including the autonomous provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo) and
Montenegro. On February 4, 2003, it was renamed to the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro, and officially abolished the name “Yugoslavia”.

On June 3 and June 5, 2006 respectively, Montenegro and Serbia declared independence, thereby ending the Yugoslav state.Kosovo announced it’s independence in 2008.

FORMATION OF KINGDOM OF YUGOSLAVIA
In 1916 the Serbian Parliament in exile decided the creation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia at a meeting inside the Municipal Theatre of Corfu. The kingdom was formed on 1 December 1918 under the name “Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes”.

On 1 December 1918 the new kingdom was proclaimed by Alexander Karadordevic, Prince-Regent for his father, Peter I of Serbia. The new Kingdom was made up of the formerly independent kingdoms of Serbia and Montenegro (which had unified ), as well as a substantial amount of territory that was formerly part of Austria-Hungary, the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. The lands previously in Austria-Hungary that formed the new state included Croatia, Slavonia and Vojvodina from the Hungarian part of the Empire, Carniola, part of Styria and most of Dalmatia from the Austrian part, and the crown province of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The creation of the state was supported by Pan-Slav nationalists and Serbian nationalists ( very much like Pan-Germanism ). Pan-Slavism was a mid 19th century movement aimed at unity of all the Slavic peoples. The main focus was in the Balkans where the South Slavs had been ruled and oppressed for centuries by the three great empires, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Venice. It was also used as a political tool by both the Russian Empire and its successor the Soviet Union.For the Pan-Slavic movement, all of the South Slav or “Yugoslav” people had united into a single state and hoped that the peoples would unite as Slavs and abandon past differences. For Serbian nationalists, for the first time, the long-desired goal of uniting all the Serb people from across the Balkans into one state was achieved.

The Yugoslav kingdom bordered Italy and Austria to the northwest, Hungary and Romania to the north, Bulgaria to the east, Greece and Albania to the south, and the Adriatic Sea to the west.

A plebiscite was also held in the Province of Carinthia, which opted to remain in Austria. The Dalmatian port city of Zadar (Italian: Zara) and a few of the Dalmatian islands were given to Italy. The city of Rijeka was declared to be the Free State of Fiume, but it was soon occupied, and in 1924 annexed, by Italy. Tensions over the border with Italy continued, with Italy claiming more of the Dalmatian coast, and Yugoslavia claiming Istria, part of the former Austrian Littoral which had been annexed to Italy, but which contained a considerable population of Croats and Slovenes.

The new government tried to integrate the new country politically as well as economically, a task made difficult because of the great diversity of languages, nationalities, and religions in the new state, the different history of the regions, and great differences in economic development among regions.For this reason King Alexander I banned national political parties in 1929, assumed executive power and renamed the country Yugoslavia. The king Alexander Karadordevic hoped to curb these separatist tendencies and mitigate nationalist passions. However, Alexander’s policies soon encountered opposition from other European powers stemming from developments in Italy and Germany, where Fascists and Nazis rose to power, and the Soviet Union, where Stalin became absolute ruler. None of these three regimes favored the policy pursued by Alexander I.

Not long after that, on 6 January 1929, using as a pretext the political crisis triggered by the shooting, King Alexander abolished the Constitution, prorogued the Parliament and introduced a personal dictatorship (known as the January 6th Dictatorship, Šestojanuarska diktatura). He also changed the name of the country to Kingdom of Yugoslavia and changed the internal divisions from the 33 oblasts to nine new banovinas on 3 October.Many politicians were jailed or kept under tight police surveillance. The effect of Alexander’s dictatorship was to further alienate the Non-Serbs from the idea of unity.

Croat opposition to the new régime was strong and, in late 1932, the Croatian Peasant Party issued the Zagreb Manifesto sought an end to Serb hegemony and dictatorship. Belgrade reacted by imprisoning many political opponents including the new Croatian Peasant Party leader Vladko Macek. Despite these measures, opposition to the dictatorship continued, with Croats calling for a solution to what was called the Croatian question. In late 1934, the king planned to release Macek from prison, introduce democratic reforms, and attempt find common ground between Serbs and Croats.

However, on 9 October 1934, the king was assassinated in Marseille, France by Velicko Kerin,an experienced marksman a Macedonian activist of the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization, in a conspiracy with Yugoslav exiles and radical members of banned political parties in cooperation with the Croatian extreme nationalist and separatist Ustaše.Since Alexander’s eldest son, Peter II,was a minor( 11 years ), a regency council of three, specified in Alexander’s will, took over the role of king. The council was dominated by the king’s cousin Prince Paul.

THE 1930’s IN YUGOSLAVIA
In the late 1930s, internal tensions continued to increase with Serbs and Croats seeking to establish ethnic federal subdivisions. Serbs wanted Vardar Banovina (later referred by as  Macedonia), Vojvodina, Montenegro united with Serb lands while Croatia wanted Dalmatia and some of Vojvodina. Both sides claimed territory in present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina populated by Bosniak Muslims. The expansion of Nazi Germany in 1938 gave new momentum to efforts to solve these problems and, in 1939, Prince Paul appointed Dragiša Cvetkovic as prime minister, with the goal of reaching an agreement with the Croatian opposition. Supported and pressured by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, Croatian leader Vladko Macek and his party managed the creation of the Croatian banovina (administrative province) on 26 August 1939. The agreement specified that Croatia was to remain part of Yugoslavia, but it was hurriedly building an independent political identity in international relations.

These changes satisfied neither Serbs who were concerned with the status of the Serb minority in the new Banovina of Croatia and who wanted more of Bosnia and Herzegovina as Serbian territory. The Croatian nationalist Ustaše were also angered by any settlement short of full independence for a Greater Croatia including all of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

DOWNFALL OF THE KINGDOM
Fearing an invasion of the World War II Axis Powers, Regent Prince Paul signed the Tripartite Pact on 25 March 1941, pledging cooperation with the Axis. Because of Paul’s unpopular decision massive demonstrations took place in Belgrade.

On 27 March, the regime of Prince Paul was overthrown by a military coup d’état with British support. The 17-year-old Peter II was declared to be of age and placed in power. General Dušan Simovic became his Prime Minister. The Kingdom of Yugoslavia withdrew its support for the Axis de-facto without formally renouncing the Tripartite Pact. Although the new rulers opposed Nazi Germany, they also feared that if German dictator Adolf Hitler attacked Yugoslavia, the United Kingdom was not in any real position to help. Regardless of this, on 6 April 1941, the German armed forces (Wehrmacht) launched the invasion of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and quickly conquered it. The royal family, including Prince Paul, escaped abroad and were interned by the British in Kenya.

The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was soon divided by the Axis into several entities. Germany, Italy, Hungary, and Bulgaria annexed some border areas outright. A Greater Germany was expanded to include most of Slovenia. Italy added the Governorship of Dalmatia and more than a third of western Slovenia to the Italian Empire. An expanded Croatia was recognized by the Axis as the Independent State of Croatia .On paper, the NDH was a kingdom and the 4th Duke of Aosta was crowned as King Tomislav II of Croatia. The rump Serbian territory became a military administration of Germany run by military governors and a Serb civil government led by Milan Nedic. Nedic attempted to gain German recognition of Serbia as a successor state to Yugoslavia and claimed King Peter II as Serbia’s monarch. Puppet states were also set up in Montenegro and southern Yugoslavia.

EXILE OF THE KING AND DISSOLUTION OF THE KINGDOM
King Peter II, who had escaped into exile, was still recognized as King of the whole state of Yugoslavia by the Allies. From 13 May 1941, the largely Serbian “Yugoslav Army of the Fatherland” (Jugoslovenska vojska u otadžbini, or JVUO, or Chetniks) resisted the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia. This anti-German and anti-communist resistance movement was commanded by Royalist General Draža Mihailovic. For a long time, the Chetniks were supported by the British, the United States, and the Yugoslavian royal government in exile of King Peter II.

However, over the course of the war, effective power changed to the hands of Josip Broz Tito’s Communist Partisans. In 1943, Tito proclaimed the creation of the Democratic Federative Yugoslavia (Demokratska federativna Jugoslavija). The Allies gradually recognized Tito’s forces as the stronger opposition forces to the German occupation. They began to send most of their aide to Tito’s Partisans, rather than to the royalist Chetniks. On 16 June 1944, the Tito–Šubašic agreement was signed which merged the de facto and the de jure government of Yugoslavia.

In early 1945, after the Germans had been driven out, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was formally restored on paper. But real political power was held by Tito’s Communist Partisans. On 29 November, King Peter II was deposed by Yugoslavia’s Communist Constituent Assembly while he was still in exile. On 2 December, the Communist authorities claimed the entire territory as part of the Democratic Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The new Yugoslavia covered roughly the same territory as the Kingdom had, but it was no longer a monarchy.

YUGOSLAVIA DURING WORLD WAR II
As official views had it, the last words of King Aleksandar had been, Save Yugoslavia, and the friendship with France’. His successors were well aware of the need to try and do the first, but the second, maintaining close ties with France, was increasingly abandoned. There were several reasons for this. By the mid 1930s France, internally divided, was increasingly unable to play an important role in Eastern Europe and support its allies, many of whom had suffered badly from the economic Crisis of that period. By contrast, Germany was increasingly willing to get into barter agreements with the countries of south east Europe. in the process those countries felt it was against their interests to closely follow France. An additional motive to improve relations with Italy and Germany was the fact that Italy supported the Ustase movement. As Macek intimated Italy would support Croatian secession from Yugoslavia, First Regent Prince Paul judged closer relations with Italy were inevitable. In an effort to rob the HSS from potential Italian support a treaty of friendship was signed between the two countries in 1937. This in fact diminished the Ustasa threat somewhat since Mussolini jailed some of their leaders and temporarily withdrew financial support. In 1938 Germany, annexing Austria, became a neighbour of Yugoslavia. The feeble reaction of France and Britain, later that year, during the Sudeten Crisis convinced Belgrade that
a) a European war was inevitable, b) it would be unwise to support France and Britain. Instead, Yugoslavia tried to stay aloof, this in spite of Paul’s personal sympathies for Britain and Serbia’s establishment’s predilections for France. In the mean time, Germany and Italy tried to exploit Yugoslavia’s domestic problems, and so did Macek. In the end, the regency agreed to the formation of the Banovina hrvatska in August 1939.

This did not put an end to the pressures from Germany and Italy, while Yugoslavia’s strategic position deteriotated by the day. It was increasingly dependent on the German market (about 90% of its exports went to Germany), while in April 1939 Italy invaded and annexed Albania. In October 1940 it attacked Greece. by that time, France had already been eliminated from the scene, leaving Britain as Yugoslavia’s only potential ally – given that Belgrade had not recognized the Soviet Union. London however wanted to involve Yugoslavia in the war, which it rejected. From late 1940 Hitler wanted Belgrade to unequivocally choose sides, and pressure intensified, culminating in the signing of the Tripartite Pact on 25 March 1941. Two days later Prince Paul was deposed in a coup d’état, his nephew Peter II was proclaimed of age, but the new government,headed by gen. Simovic assured Germany it would adhere to the Pact. Hitler however ordered the invasion of Yugoslavia. On 6 April 1941 Belgrade was bombed, on 10 April the Independent State of Croatia was proclaimed and on 17 April the weak Yugoslav Army capitulated.

German troops occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina as well as part of Serbia and Slovenia, while other parts of the country were occupied by Bulgaria, Hungary, and Italy. During this time the Independent State of Croatia created concentration camps for anti-fascists, communists, Serbs, Gypsies and Jews. One such camp was the Jasenovac concentration camp. A large number of men, women and children, Jews, Serbs, and Croat resistance members, were executed in these camps.

THE POWER KEG : BALKAN PENINSULA

THE VOLATILE BALKAN PENINSULA
TILTING THE POWER BALANCE IN THE REGION & WORLD
The Balkans is the historical name of a geographic region of southeastern Europe. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains, which run through the centre of Bulgaria into eastern Serbia. The region has a combined area of 550,000 km2 and a population of about 55 million people.Balkan is an old Turkish word meaning “a chain of wooded mountains”.The ancient Greek name for the Balkan Peninsula was the “Peninsula of Haemus”.

THE BALKAN WARS 1912 – 1913
The Balkans soon were convulsed in a major regional war, from which Greece emerged victorious and with its territory substantially enlarged. At the heart of the Balkan Wars were three issues: the disposition of Macedonia, the problem of Crete, and liberation of the countries still under Ottoman control, especially Albania. Some Macedonians wanted full unification with Greece, others wanted a separate Macedonian state, and still others wanted Macedonia to be included in a Serbian or Albanian or Bulgarian state. This issue was appallingly divisive, and the choice often was literally a matter of life or death. Guerrilla fighters and propagandists entered Macedonia from Greece and all the other countries of the region. Athens actively supported the irredentist movement in Macedonia with money, materials, and about 2,000 troops. Thessaloniki became more of a Greek city as non-Greek merchants suffered boycotts and left. Greece’s lack of access to this key port heightened tension with the Slavic neighbors.

Under these circumstances, all the Great Powers became more involved in the Macedonian problem in the first decade of the twentieth century.

Britain pressured Greece to curb guerrilla activities. When the Young Turks took over the government of the Ottoman Empire with a reformist agenda in 1908, a short period of cordial negotiations with the Greeks was chilled by reversion to nationalist, authoritarian rule in Constantinople.New Ottoman intransigence over Crete and Macedonia combined with Venizelos’s demand for complete reunification to raise the prospect of war in 1910.

Nationalism in the Balkans was the final element of the war that erupted in 1912. Early that year, a mutual defense pact between Serbia and Bulgaria divided northern Macedonia between those two countries. In response Athens signed bilateral pacts with both neighbors. Essentially, the three Balkan powers thus agreed to cooperate militarily against the Porte, but they did not agree on the vital question of how to distribute territory surrendered by the Ottoman Empire.

The Balkan powers initiated the First Balkan War by marshaling over 1 million troops and then declaring war on the Turks in October 1912.Venizelos’s military modernization paid rich dividends. Within a matter of weeks, the Greek army took Thessaloniki and besieged Ioannina to the west. The armies of all three allies fought mainly to gain a favorable position in a postwar settlement. In the May 1913 Treaty of London, the Ottoman Empire ceded all its European possessions to the Balkan allies, with the exception of Thrace and Albania, the latter of which became independent.

Because the Treaty of London made no division of territory among the allies, and because Greece and Serbia had divided Macedonian territory between themselves in a bilateral agreement, Bulgaria attacked both, initiating the Second Balkan War. Greece and Serbia won victories that ensured major territorial gains at the Treaty of Bucharest in August 1913.

The addition of southern Epirus, Macedonia, Crete, and some of the Aegean Islands expanded Greece by 68 percent, including some of the richest agricultural land on the peninsula, and the population nearly doubled. The major Greek cities of Ioannina and Thessaloniki were
reclaimed. Although more than 3 million Greeks remained in Ottoman territory, the Balkan Wars had brought the Megali Idea closer to realization than ever before. When King Constantine was crowned following the assassination of King George in Thessaloniki in March 1913, national morale had reached a high point.

REACTION IN THE BALKAN PENINSULA NATIONS
Frustrated in the north by Austria-Hungary’s incorporation of Bosnia with its 975,000 Orthodox Serbs (and many more Serbs and Serb-sympathizers of other faiths), and forced (March 1909) to accept the annexation and restrain anti-Habsburg agitation among Serbian nationalist groups, the Serbian government looked to formerly Serb territories in the south, notably “Old Serbia” (the Sanjak of Novi Pazar and the province of Kosovo).

On August 15, 1909, the Military League a group of Greek officers took action against the government to reform their country’s national government and reorganize the army. The league found itself unable to create a new political system, till the league summoned the Cretan
politician Eleutherios Venizelos to Athens as its political adviser. Venizelos persuaded the king to revise the constitution and asked the league to disband in favor of a National Assembly. In March 1910 the Military League dissolved itself.

Bulgaria, which had secured Ottoman recognition of her independence in April 1909 and enjoyed the friendship of Russia,[2] also looked to districts of Ottoman Thrace and Macedonia. In March 1910, an Albanian insurrection broke out in Kosovo which was covertly supported by the young Turks. In August 1910 Montenegro followed Bulgaria’s precedent by becoming a kingdom.

THE BALKAN WARS AND THE PARTITION OF MACEDONIA
Following their own interests and aims to conquer and partition the European part of Ottoman Turkey, the neighbouring Balkan states Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria and Montenegro decided to start a war. The Treaty between Serbia and Bulgaria signed on March 12th 1912 (with a secret annexe) included a possibility for the transformation of Macedonia into an autonomous region and anticipated the arbitration of the Russian Tsar.

In such form, this agreement was a compromise to avoid the territorial separation and partition of Macedonia. After Greece and Montenegro joined the agreement, a Balkan Alliance was formed and it immediately began preparations for a war against the Ottoman Empire. In autumn 1912 the Balkan allies declared war on Turkey.

The offensive actions of the Balkan allies against the Turkish army were carried out mainly on Macedonian territory and on the Thracian front. Believing that this war would bring the long-expected freedom, the Macedonian people took active part in the First Balkan War with their own regiments (chetas) and voluntary units. Forty-four such units were operating in Macedonia at the time impeding the mobilization and the movement of the Turkish army with their diversions. About 14,000 Macedonians fought together with the Bulgarian army within the so-called “Macedonian Regiment”. At the same time there were Macedonian soldiers distributed in thirty units within the “National Defense” and the “Voluntary Regiments” of the Serbian army. A similar formation, called the “Holy Regiment”, was operating within the Greek army. The victories of the Balkan allies over the Turkish army conditioned Turkey to sign a cease-fire and a short-term truce, but the battles went on until May 30th, 1913.

THE BALKAN LEAGUE
Bulgarian forces waiting to commence their assault on Adrianople following Italy’s victory in the Italo-Turkish War of 1911-1912 the Young Turks fell from power after a coup. The Balkan countries saw this as an opportunity to attack and fulfill their desires of expansion.
With the initial encouragement of Russian agents, a series of agreements was concluded between Serbia and Bulgaria in March 1912. Military victory against the Ottoman empire would not be possible while it could bring reinforcements from Asia. The condition of the Ottoman railways of the time was primitive, so most reinforcement would have to come by sea through the Aegean. Greece was the only Balkan country with a navy powerful enough to deny use of the Aegean to the Ottomans whose navy was very weak; thus a treaty was signed between Greece and Bulgaria in May 1912. Montenegro concluded agreements between Serbia and Bulgaria later that year. Serbia and Bulgaria signed treaties to divide between them the territory of northern Macedonia, but no such concrete agreement was signed by Greece.

The resulting alliance between Greece, Serbia,Montenegro and Bulgaria

became known as the Balkan League; its existence was undesirable for all the Great Powers. The league was loose at best, though a secret liaison officer was exchanged between the Greek and the Serbian army
after the war began. Greece delayed the start of the war several times in the summer of 1912, in order to better prepare her navy, but Montenegro declared war on October 8 (September 25 O.S.). Following an ultimatum to the Ottomans, the remaining members of the alliance
entered the conflict on October 17.

Drawing new borders under the excuse of establishing a “balance” and peace on the Balkans was a violent denial of the rights of the Macedonian people to live and develop as a free, unified and independent nation. The aspirations towards the creation of a state of their own as a necessity, a guarantee of the national sovereignty and territorial integrity of Macedonia, were evident in the ideas and actions of the Macedonian patriots. Despite the conquering and partitioning of their homeland they fought for independence and the establishment of a Macedonian government and national assembly which would decide on the form of government and the internal structure of the Macedonian state. However, the attempts to prevent the compulsory partition of Macedonia were in vain because the Balkan and the European states remained deaf to the demands of the Macedonian people for preserving the integrity of their land and its constitution as a state.

The new masters of the conquered Macedonian regions introduced a violent military and police regime, denied the national individuality of the Macedonian people, deprived them of their rights and tortured and denationalized the Macedonian people. A regime of “special decrees” from the mid-nineteenth century was imposed in the territory under Serbian rule. In the part of Macedonia under Bulgarian rule, military commanders helped by comitadji voivodes ruled over the civil authorities and “dispensed justice” to the people. In the Macedonian districts under Greek rule the notorious Cretan gandarmerie, which acted in support of the conservative Greek governors, kept law and order. The territorial, ethnic and
economic disintegration of Macedonia caused severe damage to the economy, to the Macedonian movement for national liberation and to its socio-political development.

After the Balkan Wars, Macedonia was completely devastated. Besides the tens of thousands killed in the war, there were several hundreds of thousands of refugees (more than 135,000 Macedonians and a small number of Bulgarians from Thrace escaped from the Aegean part of Macedonia occupied by the Greek army alone). There were numerous cases of genocide towards the Macedonian population in the territories occupied by the Greek, Serbian and Bulgarian armies and, according to the Carnegie Commission, several towns like Voden, Negush, Ber, Enidze Vardar, Dojran, etc., more than 200 villages (out of which around 170 villages with 17,000 homesteads in the Aegean part of Macedonia) were completely destroyed. In June 1913 the Greek army burnt to ashes the Macedonian town of Kukush with its 1,846 houses, 612 shops, 6 factories, etc. At the same time 4,000 houses were burned to the ground in the Seres vicinity.

The tragic outcome of the Balkan Wars was a real national catastrophe for Macedonia.After all this bloodshed in the Balkan the allies could not reach an agreement as how to partition the territories taken over from Turkey. The partition was carried out by force of arms and sanctioned by the Bucharest Peace Treaty signed on August 10th, 1913 according to which all the Balkan states expanded their territories. Macedonia was not only denied its autonomy which had originally been one of the causes of the war against Turkey, but it was forcefully divided and partitioned by the neighboring Balkan states. Greece seized the biggest, southern part of Macedonia, Serbia won the central Vardar region and the Pirin part with the Strumica vicinity was given to Bulgaria. The unresolved Macedonian question continued to be “an apple of discord” for the Balkan states. It remained in the whirlpool of events which were of fatal importance both for Macedonia and the future of the Balkans.